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ENGRAVINGS, . . We ea:
Vol. XLUL. A Plate containing Professor Lesx12’s Atmometer, and: ‘
' Rigures to illustrate Dr. Wouraston’s Paper on the elementary Particles ©
of certain: Crystals.—A Sketch of that Part of the Island of Java which | |
contains the natural Lake of Sulphuric Acid.—Interior of Volcano in the |
Island of Java, and Figures to illustrate Mr. Warker’s’ Paper on the Elec.
tric Fluid —A Plate to illustrate M. Livx’s Memoir on the Anatomy of ©
Plants, and Dr. Wottastron’s Cryophorus.—A third Plate’ to illustrat ae
MM. binx’s Memojr on the Anatomy of Plants—Mr, T. Jongs’s Seeto- /
graph,—a new Instrument for dividing right Lines into equal Parts,measur-
ing Angles, and inscribing Polygons in the Circle, &e. fia oh eee
~ Vol. XLII. A Plate to illustrate a New Transit Instrument invented ©
by Sir H, C. Exeverrerp, Bart.—A Plate to illustrate the Use of Aire
Vessels in Plants: By Mrs, Issrrsonn—A Pilate to illustrate M. Sz-
MENTINY’S New Apparatus for, producing Oxygen Gas to restore sus-
pénded. Animation—-Mr. ReApe’s Paper on the Refraction of the Solar &
Rays—-and: Mr. Harcreaves’s Observations on Colours.—A Plate to}
illustrate Mr. J. Wuirrorn’s mechanical’/Substitute for Leeches; and Mr.
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R. Hucues’s Gudgcon for the Shaftof 2 Water-wheel ; and Mr, Pap-
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‘Temporary Ship’s Rudders—A Quarto Plate of Mr, Samuen J
Sofa Bed. at phic PU ee A at: Roi ao
“Vol. KLIV, A Plate to illustrate Mr. Hume's Gazometer and Blows
pipe; a Proposal for an Improvement of the Galvanic Trough; and
‘ new Apparatus for preparing pure Muriatic Acid —A_ practical Diagr.
for obtaining the Lunaz Distances observed by a Sextant
Apparatus to illustrate Mr. Branpz’s Paper on some new Elec
Pienomena.---A Quarto Plate to illustrate Mrs. Innewrson’s Paper on thé
’ Cuticle of Leaves.—Brunton’s Patent Chain Cable,—Il'ig ures relative ¢
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Mr. Benwexu’s Supplement to his Paper o on the Values of increasing
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Vol. SLI: A Plate’ containing Professor Lrsuir’s kimeaiciek and
Figures to illustrate Dr. WoLLasron’s Paper on the elementary Particles:
"of certain Crystals.—A Sketch of that Part of the Island of Java which
‘contains the natural Lake of Sulphuric Acid—Interior of Volcano in the}
Island of Java, and Figures to iMustrate Mr. Watxer’s Paper on the Elec-
Plants, and Dr. W oLtasron’s Cryophorus.—A third Plate to illust
M. Link’s Memoir on the Anatomy of Plants.—Mr. T. Jonzs’s. Se
‘graph,—a new I: istfument for dividing right Lines into. equal Partsymeasi -
ing Angles, and inscribing Polygons in the Circle, &e. a
‘Vol. XLIL. A Plate to rilustrate a New ‘[ransit Ins strument inyente d
_ by Sir H. C. Eneverierp, Bart—A Plate to illustrate the Use of Aire
‘Vessels in Plants. Py Mrs. Ispetson.—#A Plate to illustrate M. e
MENTINI’s neW\Apparatus for producing Oxygen Gas to restore sng.
ended Animatipn—Mr. Reapt’s Paper.on the Refraction of the-Solz
ays—and Mr. \HagGcreaves’s Observations on Colours.—A’ Plate to
illustrate.Mr. J, Wurrrorn’s mechanical Substitute for Leeches; and M
' J. Tirrey’s* HyG@mgpneumiatic Blow-pipe.—-A Plate to descri
R. Hucues’s Gudgean it Shaft of a Water-wheel ay
-Bury's Guard fora Cartiages vhett.—A Plate to des
Daclporasy Ship’s Ose: Sr
Sofa Bed.
_ Vol. XLIV. A Plate. to ‘uses ate
os ‘Prope sal for an- Improve mer
w ratus for preparing pure Myriatic Acid.—A practi
_ for obtaining the Lunar Distances gbserved by a Sextant.
Apparat to illustrate Mr. Br anny s Paper. an Fi
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CONTENTS
OF THE FIFTIETH VOLUME.
SOME new Researches on Flame. .. «2 «2 oF 38
Mer etertal Napisalinne cs.” 5s). 4900 RaW Nee) ine eked
Remarks on Sir RicHarp Paaepane s New Fy = eiaia 35
New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. .. .. «- «+ 38
Extract of a Letter from Colonel Mupex to Wit.1aM Biack-
woop, Esq. relative to the Trigonometrical Survey. .. 40
Experiments on Vegetation, tending to correct some erroneous
Opinions entertained et the Effects gf de ang on
se Atmospheres + oi) ae fOds a ee ik}, 0) eieey Rae
Geological Queries to Mr. Waardsaen Bansines Mr. Worcs,
Mr. Fryer, &c. regarding the Basaltic and other Strata of
Northumberland and Durham, &c. .. «2 «2 «. 48
Report of the Select Committee appointed to consider of the -
Means of preventing the Mischief of Explosion from hap-
pening on board Steam-boats, to the Danger or Destruction
of His Majesty’s Subjects on board such Boats. 50, 83, 167,
243, 327
On the Cause of Elling and Flowing Springs. Sick: ||
Further Considerations on the Doctrine that the Phenomena of
Terrestrial Gravitation are occasioned by known Terrestrial
Motions. ee ee . ee ee ee oe ee 101
On the Oxi-hydrogen Blow-pipe. Ape ey rere eee egal
On the Steam-Vessel aa to be emplo ye between London
and Exeter. .. Sv asist beeen lite SL tnt ath deat dth's (kL S
A Mathematical Ousstion. sr) Ae el Ae state es, 6 LS
On the Case of Injustice which ates Saas suffer from
other Writers, and from Annotators ; particularly the late
Mr. Joun Wittiams, Author of the “ Mineral Kingdom’? 116
Vol. 50. No. 236. Dec. 1817. a _ On
CONTENTS.
On Vegetation in artificial Media. +6 es s+ ae 121
‘On the Geology of Northumlerland. .. «1 «+ «. 122
On the Advantages that may be expected to result, from the
Study of the Principles of Stratification ; with Remarks on
the proper sical of fae in this isk Sis Branch of
Geology. «+ os fie eee
On the Work enti ited fe isiernntatias ON, ‘An Essay on the
Analogy and Harmony of Care oa Figo! tiaie ea
On Iodine. a oe Pp
Theorems for determining the Vatties of inereasing ge An-
nuities. : .» 64
Memoir of ce AM Gorrie Wane, late Pr ofesior of Mi-
neralogy at Frieberg. .. ¥ she an ew ~=FS2
Preface to “The Na sear History - the Mineral Kingdom. pot
7A
Geological Queries regarding the Strata of the Vicinity of Brid-
lington ; and some > Acknowledgements to NaTHANIEL JoHN
Wincn, Esq., Ge... we on .. 200
On the Rotary and Orlicular Motions of the Earth. .. 204
On Mr. Tatum’s Experiments on Vegelation. .. .. 206
Remarks on Sir R. Puriirps’s Defence of his Hypothesis. 208
On Sir Ricwarp Puitrips’s supposed Discovery of the Cause
of the Phcenomena of Terrestrial Gravitation. — re
The Description of a Safety FETE beset Explosions
in Coal- Mines. ; A!
Remarks on Mr, Murray’s Olijections to ores iments on Vege-
tation detailed in the Phil. Mag. for July .. t; ale
Answer to Geological Queries of ‘* A Constant Reader.” 216
Description of an Apparatus for consuming Fire-damp in the
Mines without Dange rofan Explosion: a ctasey th re-
bighting the Miners’ Davy. as 217
On the new Theory of ‘the System of the (iiedse: Feet?!)
On Colours —In Answer to Mr. T. HarGreaves’s Strictures on
the Work entitled ‘* Chromatics ; or, An ark on the Analogy
and Harmony. oj Colours.” : 241
A short Account of Horizontal Water- Ww. heels. «2 (296
On Ebling and Flowing Springs; with Geological Remarks and
Queries. oe ee ee eo oe ee 267
On
CONTENTS.
On forming Collections of Geological Specimens ; and respecting
those of Mr. Surrn in the British Museum. .. We
Answer io the Letter of C. of Exeter on Steam-Boats to be used
in conveying Merchandise by Sea. ng ae Ashe 12) f
On the Cause of the Changes of Colour in Mineral Sakae 5
On an apparently new Species of Wren, discovered at Tunbridge
Wells. Se ae ° oi dp Mose = shee
On the Question “* Whether Music is necessary to the Orator,—
to what Extent,and how most readily attainable?” .. 32k
On extracting Alcohol from Potatoes, and preparing Potash
from Potatoe-tops. .. +e oe ve eo a7
On the Physiology of Vegetables. As ee -. 34l
“ Della Purificazione del Mercurio, Memoria del Sig. Dott.
G. Branchi,’ Sc... -y “e .. 348
Answer to W.H.G.’s Observations on’ Mr.Tatum’s Experi-
ments on Vegetation. .. os Ee oe -. dod
Acknowledgements to Mr.Wesreartu Forster; further Geo-
logical Queries, on the Basaltic Strata of Durham and
Northumberland: and Suggestions regarding the Situation
of the Granite Patches of the North of England, in its Series
of Strata. oa ce ee Cm) ee oe 358
Geological Observations on Strathearn. .. oe die: GS
On the component Parts of Light, and the Cause of Colour. 366
On the pretended Parallel Roads of Glen Roy. .. .. 374
On Cosmogony. « 9 we Be oe am 00.0
New Quadratic Theorem. Py oe oe 378
On a volatile concrete Oil existing in the Nut-galls of the Oak. AOL
On the Atomic Theory. bia ae. we Ae 406
On the Ring of Saturn. ais as ie un 409
An easy, simple, and infallible Method to force every Fruit-
Tree to blossom and to bear Fruit. .. ee ut 41h
On the Resistance of Solids; with Tables of the specific Cohesion
and the cohesive Force of Bodies. 5 re A13
Some further Observations on the Use of the Colchicum autum-
naleinGout. .«. we yh we ote «» 428
Experiments and Observations upon the State of the Air in
the Fever Hospitals of Cork, at a Time when they were
crowded with Patients labouring under Febrile Contagion. 433
Upon
CONTENTS.
Upon the Extent of the Expansion and Contraction of Timber
in different Directions relative to the Position of the Medulla
of the Tree. .. ye bi. Se ss aa ee
On the Nautical Almanac for 1820... oe eee, POU
Prospectus of a new System of Beaconing. .. .. 433
Notices respecting New Books. 65, 130, 224, 297, 379, 449
Proceedings of Learned Societies. 69, 146, 220, 293, 375, 456
Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 73, 143, 230, 307, 386,
458
List of Patents. .. it 76, 154, 235, 317, 391, 466
Meteorological Tabves, 77—80, 157—160, 237—240, 319—
320, 395—400, 470—473
THE
THE
PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE
AND JOURNAL.
s
1. Some new Researches on Flame. By Sir Humpury Davy,
LL.D. FLRLS. V.P.RL*
I HAVE described in three papers which the Royal Society have
honoured with a place in their Transactions, a number of ex-
periments on combustion, which show that the explosion of
gaseous mixtures can be prevented or arrested by various cooling
influences, and which led me to discover a tissue permeable to
light and air, but impermeable to flame, on which I founded the
invention of the wire-gauze safe-lamp now generally used in all
collieries in which inflammable air prevails, for the preservation of
the lives and persons of the miners. In a short notice published
in the third number of the Journal of Science and the Arts, edited
at the Royal Institution, I have given an account of some new
results on flame, which show that the intensity of the light of
flames depends principally upon the production and ignition of
solid matter in combustion, and that the heat and light in this
process are in a great measure independent phenomena. Since
this notice has been printed, 1 have made a number of researches
on flame: and as they appear to me to throw some new lights on
this important subject, and to lead to some practical views con-
nected with the useful arts, I shall without any further apology
present them to the Royal Society.
That greater distinctness may exist in the details, I shall treat
of my subjects under four heads. In the first I shall discuss the
effects of rarefaction, by partly removing the pressure of the at-
mosphere upon flame and explosion. In the second, I shall con-
sider the effects of heat in combustion. In the third, I shall
examivue the effect of the mixture of gaseous substances not con-
cerned in combustion upon flame and explosion. In the fourth,
I shall offer some general views upon flame, and point out cer-
tain practical and theoretical applications of the results.
* From the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1817, part i.
Vol. 50. No, 231. July 1817. A2 1, On
4 Some new Researches on Flame.
I. On the Effect of Rarefaction by partly removing the Pressure
of the Atmosphere upon Flame and Explosion,
The earlier experimenters upon the Boylean vacuum observed
that flame ceased in highly rarefied air; but the degree of rare-
faction necessary for this effect has been differently stated.
Amongst late experimenters, M. de Grotthus has examined this
subject. He has asserted that a mixture of oxygen and hydro-
gen ceases to be explosive by the electrical spark when rarefied
sixteen times, and that a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen can-
not be exploded when rarefied only six times, and he generalizes
by supposing that rarefaction, whether produced by removing
pressure or by heat, has the same effect.
I shall not begin by discussing the experiments of this inge-
uious author. My own results and conclusions are very different
from his; and the cause of this difference will I think be ob-
vious in the course of these inquiries. 1 shall proceed in stating
the observations which guided my researches.
When hydrogen gas slowly produced from a proper mixture
was inflamed at a fine orifice of a glass tube, as in the experi-
ment called the philosophical candle, so as to ake a jet of
flame of about 1-6th of an inch in height, and introduced under
the receiver of an air-pump containing from 200 to 300 cubical
inches of air, the flame enlarged as the receiver became ex-
hausted ; and, when the gauge indicated a pressure between four
and five times less than that of the atmosphere, was at its maxi-
mum of size: it then gradually diminished below, but burned
above, till the pressure was between seven and eight times less,
when it became extinguished. ,
To ascertain whether the effect depended upon the deficiency
of oxygen, I used a larger jet with the same apparatus, when
the flame to my surprise burned longer, and when the atmosphere
was rarefied ten times, and this in repeated trials. ,When the
larger jet was used, the point of the glass tube became white hot,
and continued red hot till the flame was extinguished. It im-
mediately occurred to me, that the heat communicated to the
gas by this tube, was the cause that the combustion continued
longer in the last trials when the larger flame was used; and
the following experiments confirmed the conclusion, A piece
of wire of platinum was coiled round the top of the tube, so as to
reach into and above the flame. The jet of gas of 1-6th of an
inch in height was lighted and the exhaustion made; the wire
of platinum soon became white hot in the centre of the flame,
and a small point of wire near the top fused: it continued white
hot till the pressure was six times less, when it was ten times it
continued red hot at the upper part, and, as long as it was dull
red,
Some new Researches on Flame. 5
red, the gas though extinguished below, continued to burn in
contact with the hot wire, and the combustion did not cease until
the pressure was reduced thirteen times.
It appears from this result, that the flame of hydrogen is ex-
tinguished in rarefied atmospheres, only when the heat it pro-
duces is insufficient to keep up the combustion, which appears
-to be when it is incapable of communicating visible ignition to
metal; and as this is the temperature required for the inflamma-
tion of hydrogen at common pressures, it appears that its com-
dustibility is neither diminished nor increased by rarefaction
from the removal of pressure.
According to this view with respect to hydrogen, it should
follow that amongst other combustible bodies, those which re-
quire least heat for their combustion, ought to burn in more
rarefied air than those that require more heat, and those that
‘produce much heat in their combustion ought to burn, other
circumstances being the same, in more rarefied air than those
that produce little heat: and every experiment I have made
confirms these conclusions. Thus olefiant gas which approaches
nearly to hydrogen in the heat produced by its combustion, and
.which does not require a much higher temperature for its in-
flammation, when its flame was made by a jet of gas from a
bladder connected with a small tube furnished with a wire of
platinum, under the same circumstances as hydrogen, ceased to
-burn when the pressure was diminished between ten and eleven
times: and the flames of alcohol and of the wax taper which
require a greater consumption of heat for the volatilization and
decomposition of their combustible matter, were extinguished
when the pressure was five or six times less without the wire of
platinum, and seven or eight times less when the wire was kept
in the flame. Light carburetted hydrogen, which produces, as
will be seen hereafter, less heat in combustion than any of the
common combustible gases, except carbonic oxide, and which
requires a higher temperature for its inflammation than any other,
had its flame extinguished, even though the tube was furnished
with the wire when the pressure was below 1-4th.
The flame of carbonic oxide which, though it produces little
heat in combustion, is as inflammable as hydrogen, burned when
the wire was used, the pressure being 1-6th.
The flame of sulphuretted hydrogen, the heat of which is in
some measure carried off by the sulphur produced by its decom-
position during its combustion in rare air, when burned in the
same apparatus as the olefiant and other gases, was extinguished
when the pressure was l-7th,
_ Sulphur, which requires a lower temperature for its combustion
than any common inflammable substance, except phosphorus,
Ag burned
6 Some new Researches on Flame.
burned with a very feeble blue flame in air rarefied fifteen times,
and at this pressure the flame heated a wire of platinum to dull
redness, nor was it extinguished till the pressure was reduced to
1-20th*.
Phosphorus, as has been shown by M. Van Marum, burns in
an atmosphere rarefied sixty times : and I found that phosphu-
retted hydrogen produced a flash of light when admitted into
the best vacuum that could be made, by an excellent pump of
Nairu’s construction.
The mixture of chlorine and hydrogen inflames at a much
lower temperature than that of hydrogen and oxygen, and produces
a considerable degree of heat in combustion; it was therefore
probable that it would bear a greater degree of rarefaction, with-
out having its power of exploding destroyed ; and this I found
in many trials is actually the case, contrary to the assertion of
M. de Grotthus. Oxygen and hydrogen i in the proportion to
form water, will not explode by the electrical spark when rarefied
eighteen times ; but hydrogen and chlorine in the proportion to
form: muriatic acid gas, gave a distinct flash of light under the
same circumstances, aud they combined with visible inflamma-
tion when the spark was passed through them, the exhaustion
being to 1-24th.
The experiment on the flame of hydrogen with the wire of
platinum, and which holds good with the flames of the other
gases, shows, that by preserving heat in rarefied air, or giving
heat to a mixture, inflammation may be continued when, under
common circumstances, it would be extinguished. ‘This I found
was the case in other instances, when the heat was differently
communicated: thus, when camphor was burned in a glass tube,
so as to make the upper part of the tube red hot, the inflamma-
tion continued when the rarefaction was nine times, whereas it
would only continue in air rarefied six times, when it was burned
in a thick metallic tube which could not be considerably heated
by it.
By bringing a little naphtha in contact with a red hot iron,
it produced a faint lambent flame, when there remained in the
receiver only 1-30th of the original quantity of air, though with-
out foreign heat its flame was extinguished when the quantity
was 1-6th.
* The temperature of the atmosphere diminishes in a certain ratio with
its height, whieh must be attended to in the conclusions respecting com-
bustion in the upper regions of the atmosphere, and the elevation must be
somewhat lower than in arithmetical progression, the pressure decreasing
in geometrical progression.
There is, however, every reason to believe, that the taper would be ex-
tinguished at a height of between nine and ten miles, hydragen between
twelve aud thirteen, and sulphur betwoew fifteen and sixteen.
I rarefied
Some new Researches on Flame. 7
T rarefied a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen by the air-pump
to about eighteen times, when it could not be inflamed by the
electric spark. I then heated strongly the upper part of the
tube till the glass began to soften, and passed the spark, when
a feeble flash was observed not reaching far into the tube, the
heated gases only appearing to enter into infiammation. This
last experiment requires considerable care. If the exhaustion is
much greater, or if the heat is raised very slowly*, it does not
succeed; and if the heat is raised so high as to make the glass
luminous, the flash of light, which is extremely feeble, is not vi-
sible: it is difficult to procure the proper degree of exhaustion,
and to give the exact degree of heat; I have, however, suc-
ceeded three times in obtaining the results, and in one instance
it was witnessed by Mr. Brande.
To elucidate the inquiry still further, I made a series of ex-
periments on the heat produced by some of the inflammable
gases in combustion. In comparing the heat communicated to
wires of platinum by flames of the same size, it was evident, that
hydrogen and olefiant gas in oxygen, and hydrogen in chlorine,
produced a much greater intensity of heat in combustion, than
the other gaseous substances I have named burned in oxygen:
but no regular scale could be formed from observations of this
kind. I endeavoured to gain some approximations on the sub-
ject by burning equal quantities of different gases under the same
circumstances, and applying the heat to an apparatus by which
it could be measured. For this purpose a mercurial gas-holder
was furnished with a system of stop-cocks, terminating in a
strong tube of platinum having a minute aperture. Above this
was fixed a copper cup filled with olive oil, in which a thermo-
meter was placed. The oil was heated to 212° to prevent any
differences in the communication of heat by the condensation of
aqueous vapour; the pressure was the same for the different
gases, and they were consumed as nearly as possible in the same
time, and the flame applied to the same point of the copper cup,
the bottom of which was wiped after each experiment.
The results were as follows :
The flame from olefiant gas raised the thermometer to 270°
—— hydrogen .. ie av 288
————— sulphuretted hydrogen oe oo) 282
—— coal gas .. . ee .- 236
— gaseous oxide of carbon’. «: fo.218
The quantities of oxygen cousumed (that absorbed by the hy-
drogen being taken as one) would be, supposing the combustion
perfect, for the olefiant gas six, for the sulphuretted hydrogen
* The reason will be obvious from what is stated in page 9.
A4 three,
g Some new Researches on Flame.
three, for the carbonic oxide one. The coal gas contained only
a very small proportion of olefiant gas; supposing it to be pure
carburetted hydrogen, it would have consumed four of oxygen.
Taking the elevations of temperature, and the quantities of oxy-
gen consumed as the data, tne ratios of the heat produced by
the combustion of the different gases, would be for hydrogen
twenty-six, for olefiant gas 9-66, for sulphuretted hydrogen 6°66,
for carburetted hydrogen six, for carbonic oxide six*.
It will be useless to reason upon this ratio as exact, for char-
coal was deposited both from the olefiant gas and coal gas during
the experiment, and much sulphur was deposited from the sul-
phuretted hydrogen; and there is great reason to believe, that
the capacities of fluids for heat increase with their temperature.
It confirms, however, the general conclusions, and proves that
hydrogen starids at the head of the scale, and gaseous oxide of
carbon at the bottom. It might at first view be imagined that,
according to this scale, the flame of carbonic oxide ought to be
extinguished by rarefaction, at the same degree as that of car-
buretted hydrogen; but it must be remembered, as I have men-
tioned in another place, that carbonic oxide is a much more
combustible gas. Carbonic oxide inflames iu the atmosphere
when brought into contact with an iron wire heated to dull red-
ness, whereas carburetted hydrogen is not inflammable by a si-
milar wire, unless it is heated to whiteness so as to burn with
sparks.
Il. On the Effects of Rarefaction by Heat on Combustion and
Explosion.
The results detailed in the preceding section are indirectly
opposed to the opinion of M.de Grotthus, that rarefaction by heat
destroys the combustibility of gaseous mixtures. Before I made
any direct experiments on this subject, ] endeavoured to ascer-
tain the degree of expansion which can be communicated to
elastic fluids by the strongest heat that can be applied to glass
vessels. For this purpose I introduced into a graduated curved
glass tube some fusible metal. I heated the fusible metal and
the portion of the tube containing the air included by it, under
boiling water for some time. I then placed the apparatus in a
charcoal fire, and very gradually raised the temperature till the
fusible metal appeared luminous when viewed in the shade. At
this time the air had expanded soas to occupy 2°25 parts in the
tube, it being one at the temperature of boiling water. Another
, experiment was made in a thicker glass tube, and the heat was
E * These results may be compared with Mr.Dalton’s new System of
Chemical Philosophy; they agree in showing that hydrogen produces more
heat in combustioa than apy of its compounds,
raised
Some new Researches on Flame. 9
raised until the tube began to run together; but though this
heat appeared cherry red, the expansion was not to more than
2°5, and a part of this might perhaps have been apparent only,
ewing to the collapsing of the glass tmbe before it actually melted.
It may be supposed that the oxidation of the fusible metal may
have had some effect in making the expansion appear less ; but
in the first experiment the air was gradually brought back to its
original temperature of boiling water, when the absorption was
searcely sensible. If M. Gay Lussac’s conclusions be taken as
the ground-work of calculation, and it be supposed that air ex-
pands equally for equal increments of temperature, it would ap-
pear that the temperature of air capable of rendering glass lu-
minous must be 1055° Fahrenheit*.
M. de Grotthus describes an experiment in which atmospheric
air and hydrogen, expanded to four times their bulk over mer-
cury by heat, would not inflame by the electric spark. It is
evident, that in this experiment a large quantity of steam or of
mercurial vapour must have been present, which, like other in-
' explosive elastic fluids, prevents combustion when mixed in cer-
tain quantities with explosive mixtures; but though he seems
aware that his gases were not dry, yet he draws his general con-
clusion, that expansion by heat destroys the explosive powers of
gases, principally from this inconclusive experiment.
I introduced into a small graduated tube over well boiled mer-
cury, a mixture of two parts of hydrogen and one of oxygen,
and heated the tube by a large spirit-lamp till the volume of the
gas was increased from | to 2°5. I then, by means of a blow-
pipe and another spirit-lamp, made the upper part of the tube
red hot, when an explosion instantly took place.
I introduced into a bladder a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen,
and connected this bladder with a thick glass tube of about
1-6th of an inch in diameter and three feet long, curved so that
it could be gradually heated in a charcoal furnace ; two spirit-
lamps were placed under the tube where it entered the charcoal
fire, and the mixture was very slowly pressed through: an ex-
plosion took place before the tube was red hot.
This experiment shows that expansion by heat, instead of di-
minishing the combustibility of gases, on the contrary, enables
them to explode apparently at a lower temperature, which seems
perfectly reasonable, as a part of the heat communicated by any
ignited body must be lost in gradually raising the temperature,
* The mode of ascertaining temperatures as high as tbe point of fusion
of glass by the expansion of air, seems more unexceptionable than any
other [t yives for the point of visible ignition nearly the same degree as
that deduced by Newton from the times of the cooling of ignited metal in
the atmosphere,
I mate
10 Some new Researches on Flame.
I made several other experiments which establish the same con=
elusions. A mixture of common air and hydrogen was intro-
duced into a small copper tube, having a stopper not quite tight
the copper tube was placed in a charcoal fire: before it beeame
visibly red an explosion took place, and the stopper was driven
out.
I made various experiments on explosions by passing mixtures
of hydrogen and oxygen through heated tubes: in the beginning
of one of these trials, in which the heat was much below redness,
steam appeared to be formed without any combustion. This led
me to expose mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen in tubes, in which
they were confined by fluid fusible metal to heat; and I found
that by carefully applying a heat between the boiling point of
mercury, which is not sufficient for the effect, and a heat ap-
proaching to the greatest heat that can be given without making
glass luminous in darkness, the combination was effected without
any violence, and without any light: and commencing with 212°,
the volume of steam formed at the point of combination appeared
exactly equal to that of the original gases. So that the first
effect in experiments of this kind is an expansion, afterwards a
contraction, and then the restoration of the primitive volume.
If when this change is going on, the heat be quickly raised to
redness, an explosion takes place; but with small quantities of
gas the change is completed in less than a minnie.
It is probable, that the slow combination without combustion,
already long ago observed with respect to hydrogen and chlorine,
oxygen and metals, will happen at certain temperatures with
most substances that unite by heat. On trying charcoal, I
found that at a temperature which appeared to be a little above
the boiling point of quicksilver, it converted oxygen pretty rapidly
into carbonic acid, without any luminous appearance, and ata
dull red heat, the elements of olefiant gas combined in a similar
manner with oxygen, slowly and without explosion.
The effect of the slow combination of oxygen and hydrogen
is not connected with their rarefaction by heat, for J found that
it took place when the gases were confined in a tube by fusible
metal rendered solid at its upper surface; and certainly as rapidly,
and without any appearance of light.
M. de Grotthus has stated, that, if a glowing coal be brought
into contact with a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, it only
rarefies them, but does not explode them; but this depends
upon the degree of heat communicated by the coal: if it is red
in day-light and free from ashes, it uniformly explodes the mix-
ture; if its redness is barely visible in shade, it will not explode
them, but cause their slow combination: and the general phe-
nomenon is wholly unconnected with rarefaction, as is shown by
the
Some new Researches on Flame. ll
the following circumstance. When the heat is greatest, and
before the invisible combination is completed, if an iron wire
heated to whiteness be placed upon the coal within the vessel,
the mixture instantly explodes.
Light carburetted hydrogen, or pure fire-damp, as has been
shown, requires a very strong heat for its inflammation; it there-
fore offered a good substance for an experiment on the effect of
high degrees of rarefaction by heat on combustion. I mixed to-
gether one part of this gas and eight parts of air, and introduced
them into a bladder furnished with a capillary tube. 1 heated
this tube till it began to melt, and then slowly passed the mix-
ture through it into the flame of a spirit-lamp, when it took fire
and burned with its own peculiar explosive light beyond the
flame of the amp, and when withdrawn, though the aperture
was quite white hot, it continued to burn vividly.
That the compression in one part of an explosive mixture
produced by the sudden expansion of another part by heat, or
the electric spark, is not the cause of combination, as has been
supposed by Dr. Higgins, M. Berthollet, and others, appears to
be evident from what has been stated, and it is rendered still
more so by the following facts. A mixture of hydro-phosphoric
gas (bi-phosphuretted hydrogen gas) and oxygen, which explode
at a heat a little above that of boiling water, was confined by
mercury, and very gradually heated on a sand-bath: when the
temperature of the mercury was 242°, the mixture exploded.
A similar mixture was placed in a receiver communicating with
a condensing syringe, and condensed over mercury till it oc-
eupied only 1-5th of its original volume. No explosion took
place, and no chemical change had occurred; for when its volume
was restored, it was instantly exploded by the spirit-lamp.
It would appear, then, that the heat given out by the com-
pression of gases is the real cause of the combustion which it
produces, and that at certain elevations of temperature, whether
in rarefied or compressed atmospheres, explosion or combustion
co 2.@. bodies combine with the production of heat and
ight.
Ili. On the Effects of the Mixture of different Gases in Ex-
plo
sion and Combustion.
In my first paper on the fire-damp of coal mines, I have men-
tioned that carbonic acid gas has a greater power of destroying
the explosive power of mixtures of fire-damp and air than azote,
and I have ventured to suppese the cause to be its greater den-
sity and capacity for heat, in consequence of which it might exert
a greater cooling agency, and prevent the temperature of the
mixture from being raised to that degree necessary for com -
bustion,
12 Someé new Researches on Flaine.
bustion. I have lately made a series of experiments with the
view of determining how far this idea is correct, and for the pur-
pose of ascertaining the general phenomena of the effects of the
mixture of gaseous substances upon explosion and combustion.
I took gives volumes of a mixture of two parts of hydrogen
and one part of oxygen by measure, and diluting them with va-
rious quantities of different elastic fluids, I ascertained at what
degree of dilution the power of inflammation by a strong spark
from a Leyden phial was destroyed. I found that for one of
the mixture inflammation was prevented by ©
Of Hydrogen, about .. 28 048
Oxygen itd os ale ion
Nitrous oxide Be Ss ie bd
Carburetted hydrogen ue wie seth
Sulphuretted hydrogen sie oles
Olefiant gas 8 ee aft aes
Muriatie acid gas... ot ded
Silicated fluoric acid gas... oo
Inflammation took place when the mixtures contained of
Hydrogen .. “% ee 304)°6
Oxygen kre ale ste nate F
Nitrous oxide ae oi me
Carburetted hydrogen ws owiia'g
Olefiant gas fis i Hobie
Sulphuretted hydrogen hd ote oe
Muriatic acid gas... oe siete
Fluoric acid gas. oe we IE
a
I hope to be able to repeat these experiments with more pre-
cision at no distant time ; the results are not sufficiently exact
to lay the foundation for any calculations on the relative cooling
powers of equal volumes of the gases; but they show sufficiently,
if the conclusions of MM. de la Roche and Berard be correct,
that other causes, besides density and capacity for heat, inter-
fere with the phenomena. Thus nitrous oxide, which is nearly
1-3d denser than oxygen, and which, according to De la Roche
and Berard, has a greater capacity for heat in the ratio of 1-3503
to ‘9765 in volume, has lower powers of preventing explosion ;
and hydrogen, which is fifteen times lighter than oxygen, and
which in equal volumes has a smaller capacity for heat, certainly
‘has‘a higher power of preventing explosion; and olefiant gas
exceeds all other gaseous substances in a much higher ratio
than could have been expected from its density and capacity.
The olefiant gas I used was recently made, and might have con-
tained some vapour of ether, and the nitrous oxide was mixed
‘with some azote, but these slight causes could not have interfered
with the results to any considerable extent.
Mr.
Some new Researches on Flame. 13
Mr. Leslie, in his elaborate and ingenious researches on heat,
has observed the high powers of hydrogen of abstracting heat
from solid bodies, as compared with that of common air and
oxygen. I made a few experiments on the comparison of the
powers of hydrogen, in this respect, with those of carburetted
hydrogen, azote, oxygen, olefiant gas, nitrous oxide, chlorine,
and carbonic acid gas. The same thermometer raised to the
same temperature, 160°, was exposed to equal volumes (21 cubic
inches) of olefant gas, coal gas, carbonic acid gas, chlorine,
nitrous oxide gas, hydrogen, oxygen, azote, and air, at equal
temperatures, 32° Fahrenheit.
The times required for cooling to 106° were for
Air Be eee ake it BOT eh One « tiie nih oir {-47
Hydrogen ©.» -. “49 Nitrous oxide®¥ » 2. 2°30°2°53
Olefiant gas .. +. Trio Carbonic acid gas* 2°45
Coal gas ee 5a et ealopine ti Rate 3°6
Azote oe Haan See
It appears from these experiments, that the power of elastic
fuids to abstract or conduct away heat from solid surfaces, is in
some inverse ratio to their density, and that there is something
in the constitution of the light gases, which enables them to
carry off heat from solid surfaces in a different manner from that
in which they would abstract it in gascous mixtures, depending
probably upon the mobility of their parts 7. The heating of
gaseous media by the contact of fluid or solid bodies, as has been
shown by Count Rumford, depends principally upon the change
of place of their particles; and it is evident from the results
stated in the beginning of this section, that these particles have
different powers of abstracting heat analogous to the different
powers of solids and fluids. Where an elastic fluid exerts a
cooling influence on a solid surface, the effect must depend prin-
cipally upon the rapidity with which its particles change their
places: but where the cooling particles are mixed throughout a
mass with other gaseofis particles, their effect must principally
depend upon the power they possess of rapidly abstracting heat
from the contiguous particles; and this will depend probably
upon two causes, the simple abstracting power by which they
become quickly heated, and their capacity for heat, which is great
jn proportion as their temperatures are less raised by this abs-
traction.
* These two last results were observed by Mr. Faraday of the Royal In-
stitution, (from whom I receive much oseful assistance in most of my ex-
criments,) when [ was absent from the Laboratory.
+ Those particles which are lizhtest must be couceived most capable of
ebanying place, and would therefore cool solid surfaces most rapidly: in
the cooling of gaseous mixtures, the mobility of the particles can be of lit-
tle consequence,
. Whatever
14 Somé new Researches on Flame.
Whatever be the cause of the different cooling powers of the
different elastic fluids in preventing inflammation, very simple
experiments show that they operate uniformly with respect to
the different species of combustion, and that those explosive mix-
tures, or inflammable bodies, which require least heat for their
combustion, require larger quantities of the different gases to
prevent the effect, and vice versa; thus one of chlorine and one
of hydrogen still inflame when mixed with eigliteen times their
bulk of oxygen, whereas a mixture of carburetted hydrogen and
oxygen in the proper proportions for combinations, one and two,
have their inflammation prevented by less than three times their
volume of oxygen.
A wax taper was instantly extinguished in air mixed with 1-10th
of silicated fluoric acid gas, and in air mixed with }-6th of mu-
riatic acid gas; but the flame of hydrogen burned readily in
those mixtures, and in mixtures in which the flame of hydrogen
was extinguished, the flame of sulphur burned.
There is a very simple experiment which demonstrates in an
elegant manner this general principle. Into a long bottle with
a narrow neck introduce a lighted taper, and let it burn till it is
extinguished ; carefully stop the bottle, and introduce another
lighted taper, it will be extinguished before it reaches the bottoms
of the neck: then introduce a small tube containing zinc and
diluted sulphuric acid, and at the aperture of which the hydro-
gen is inflamed ; the hydrogen will be found to burn in whatever
part of the bottle the tube is placed: after the hydrogen is ex-
tinguished, introduce lighted sulphur; this will burn for some
time, and after its extinction, phosphorus will be as luminous as
in the air, and, if heated in the bottle, will produce a pale yel-
low flame of considerable density.
In eases when the heat required for chemical union is very
small, as in the instance of hydrogen and chlorine, a mixture
which prevents inflammation will not prevent combination, 2. e.
the gases will combine without any flash. This I witnessed in
mixing two volumes of carburetted hydrogen with one of chlorine
and hydrogen ; muriatic acid was formed throughout the mix-
ture, and heat produced, as was evident from the expansion when
the spark passed, and the rapid contraction afterwards, but the
heat was so quickly carried off by the quantity of carburetted
hydrogen that no flash was visible.
In the case of phosphorus, which is combustible at the lowest
temperature of the atmosphere, no known admixture of elastie
fluid prevents the luminous appearance; but this seems to de-
pend upon the light being limited to the solid particles of phos-
phoric acid formed; whereas to.produce flame, a certain mass
of elastic fluid must be luminous ; and there is every reason to
believe,
Some new Researches on Flame. 15
believe, that when phasphuretted hydrogen explodes in very rare
air, it is only the phosphorus which is consumed. Any other
substance that produces solid matter in combustion would pro-
bably be luminous in air as rare, or in mixtures as diluted, as
phosphorus, provided the heat was elevated sufficiently for its
combustion. I have found that this is actually the case with
respect to zinc. 1 threw some zinc filings into an ignited iron
erucible fixed on the stand of an air-pump under a receiver, and
exhausted until only 1-60th of the original quantity of air re-
tained. When I judged that the red het crucible must be full
of the vapour of zinc, I admitted about 1-6Uth more of air,
when a bright flash of light took place in and above the cruci-
ble, similar to that which is produced by admitting air to the
vapour of phosphorus in vacuo.
The cooling power of mixtures of elastic fluids in preventing
combustion must increase with their condensation, and diminish
with their rarefaction ; at the same time, the quantity of matter
entering into combustion in given spaces, is relatively increased
and diminished. ‘The experiments on flame in rarefied atmo-
spherical air, show that the quantity of heat produced in com-
bustion is very slowly diminished by rarefaction, the diminution
of the cooling power of the azote being apparently in a higher -
ratio than the diminution of the heating powers of the burning
bodies. I endeavoured to ascertain what would be the effect of
condensation on flame in atmospheric air, and whether the cool-
ing power of the azote would increase in a lower ratio, as might
be expected, than the heat produced by the increase of the quan-
tity of matter entering into combustion ; but I found consider-
able difficulties in making the experiments with precision. I
ascertained, however, that both the light and heat of the flames
of the taper, of sulphur and hydrogen, were increased by acting
on them by air condensed four times; but not more than they
would have been by an addition of 1-5th of oxygen.
I condensed air nearly five times, and ignited iron wire to
whiteness in it by the voltaic apparatus; but the combustion took
place with very little more brightness than in the common at-
mosphere, and would not continue as in oxygen, nor did char-
coal burn much more brightly in this compressed air than in
common air. | intend to repeat these experiments, if possible,
with higher condensing powers: they show sufficiently that (for
certain limits at least) as rarefaction does not diminish consider-
ably the heat of flame in atmospherical air, so neither does con-
densation considerably increase it; a circumstance of great im-
portance in the constitution of our atmosphere, which at all the
heights or depths at which man can exist still preseryes the
same relations to combustion.
It
16 Some new Researches on Flame.
It may be concluded from the general law, that at high tem-
peratures, gases not concerned in combustion will have less
powers of preventing that operation, and likewise, that steam
and vapours, which require a considerable heat for their forma-
tion, will have less effect in preventing combustion, particularly
of those bodies requiring low temperatures, than gases at the
commion heat of the atmosphere.
I have made some experiments on the effects of steam, and
their results were conformable to these views. I found that a
very large quantity of steam was necessary to prevent sulphur
from burning. Oxygen and hydrogen exploded by the electric
spark when mixed with five times their volume of steam; and
even a mixture of air and carburetted hydrogen gas, the least
explosive of all mixtures, required a third of steam to prevent its
explosion, whereas 1-5th of azote produced the effect. These
trials were made over mercury; heat was applied to water above
the mercury, and 37-5 for 100 parts was regarded as the-cor-
rection for the expansion of the gases.
It is probable that with certain heated mixtures of gases, where
the non-supporting or non-inflammable elastic fluids are in great
quantities, combination with oxygen will take place, as in the
instance mentioned, page 14, of hydrogen and chlorine, with-
out any light, for the temperature produced will not be sufficient
to render elastic media luminous ; and there are no combustions,
‘except those of the compounds of phosphorus and the metals,
in which solid matters are the result of combinations with oxy-
gen. I have shown in the paper referred to in the introduction,
that the light of common flames depends almost. entirely upon
the deposition, ignition and combustion of solid charcoal ;_ but
to produce this deposition from gaseous substances demands a
high temperature. Phosphorus, which rises in vapour at com-
mon temperatures, and the vapour of which combines with oxy-
gen at those temperatures, as I have mentioned before, is always
Juminous, for each particle of acid formed must, there is every
reason to helieye, be white hot; but so few of these particles
exist in a given space that they scarcely raise the temperature
of .a solid body exposed to them, though, as in the rapid com-
bustion of phosphorus, where immense numbers are Kit. in
a small space, they produce a most intense heat,
In all cases the quantity of heat communicated by combustion,
will be in proportion to the quantity of burning matter coming
in contact with the body to be heated. Thus, the blow-pipe and
currents of air operate. In the atmosphere, the effect is im-
peded by the mixture of azote, though still it is very great: with
pure oxygen compression produces an immense effect, and with
currents of oxygen and hydrogen, there is every reason to believe
that
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Some new Researches on Flame. 17
that solid matters are made to attain the temperature ofthe
flame. This temperature, however, evidently presents the limit
to experiments of this kind; for bodies exposed to flame can never
be hotter than flame itself; whereas in the Voltaic apparatus
there seems to be no limit to the heat, except the volatilization
of the conductors.
The temperatures of flames are probably very different. Where,
in chemical changes, there is no change of volume, as in the
instance of the mutual action of chlorine and hydrogen, prussi¢
gas (cyanogen) and oxygen, approximations to their tempera-
tures may be gained from the expansion in explosion.
I have made some experiments of this kind by detonating the
gases by the electrical spark in a curved tube containing mercury
or water; and I judged of the expansion from the quantity of
fluid thrown out of the tube: the resistance opposed by mercury,
and its great cooling powers, rendered the results very unsatis-
factory in the cases in which it was used; but with water, cy-
anogen aud oxygen being employed, they were more conclusive.
Cyanogen and oxygen, in the proportion of one to two, detonated
ina tube of about 2-5ths of an inch in diameter, displaced a quan-
tity of water which demonstrated an expansion of fifteen times
their original bulk. This would indicate a temperature of above
50006° of Fahrenheit, and the real temperature is probably much
higher; for heat must be lost by communication to the tube and
the water. The heat of the gaseous carbon in combustion in this
gas, appears more intense than that of hydrogen; for I found a
filament of platinum was fused by a flame of cyanogen in the air
which was not fused by a similar flame of hydrogen.
IV. Some general Observations, and practical Inferences.
The knowledge of the cooling power of elastic media in pre-
venting the explosion of the fire-damp, led me to those practical
researches which terminated in the discovery of the wire-gauze
safe-lamp; and the general investigation of the relation and
extent of these powers serves to elucidate the operation of wire-
gauze and other tissues or systems of apertures permeable to
light and air, in intercepting flame, and confirms the views I
originally gave of the phenomenon.
Flame is gaseous matter heated so highly as to be Juminous,
and that to a degree of temperature beyond the white heat of
solid bodies, as is shown by the circumstance, that air not lu-
minous wil! communicate this degree of heat*, When an at-
tempt is made to pass flame through a very fine mesh of wire-
* This is proved by the simple experiment of holding a fine wire of pla-
tinum about the 1-20th of an inch from the exterior of the middle of the
flame of a spirit-lamp, and concealing the flame by an opaque body, The
wire will become white hot in a space where there is no visible light.
Vol. 50, No.231. July 1817. B gauze
Is Some new Researches on Flame.
gauze at the common temperature, the gauze cools each portion
of the elastic matter that passes through it, so as to reduce its
temperature below that degree at which it is lnminous, and the
diminution of temperature must be proportional to the smallness
of the mesh and the mass of the metal. The power of a metal-
lic or other tissue to prevent explosion, will depend upon the
heat required to produce the combustion as compared with that
acquired by the tissue; and the flame of the most inflammable
substances, and of those that produce most heat in combustion,
will pass through a metallic tissue that will interrupt the flame
of less inflammable substances, or those that produce little heat
in combustion. Or the tissue being the same, and impermeable
to all flames at common temperatures, the flames of the most
combustible substances, and of those which produce most heat,will
most readily pass through it when it is heated, and each will
pass through it at a different degree of temperature. In short,
all the circumstances which apply to the effect of cooling mix-
tures upon flame, will apply to cooling perforated surfaces. Thus,
the flame of phosphuretted hydrogen at common temperatures,
will pass through a tissue sufficiently large not to he immediately
choked up by the phosphoric acid formed, and the phosphorus
deposited*. A tissue of 100 apertures to the square inch, made
of wire of 1-60th, will at common temperatures intercept the
flame of a spirit-lamp but not that of hydrogen; and when
strongly heated, it will no longer arrest the flame of the spirit-
lamp. A tissue which will not interrupt the flame of hydrogen
when red hot, will still intercept that of olefiant gas; and a heated
tissue which would communicate explosion from a mixture of
olefiant gas and air, will stop an explosion from a mixture of
fire-damp. or carburetted hydrogen.
The ratio of the combustibility of the different gaseous matters
is likewise to a certain extent as the masses of heated matter
required to inflame themt. Thus an iron wire of 1-40th of an
inch heated cherry red, will not inflame olefiant gas, but it will
inflame hydrogen gas; and a wire of 1-Sth, heated to the same
degree, will inflame olefiant gas; but a wire of 1-500dth must
be heated to whiteness to inflame hydrogen, though at a low red
heat it will inflame bi-phosphuretted gas; but wire of 1-40th
* Ifa tissue containing above 700 apertures to the square inch be held
over the flame of phosphorus or phosphuretted hydrogen, it does not trans-
mit the flame till it is sufficiently heated to enable the phosphorus to pass
through it in vapour. Phosphuretted hydrogen is decomposed in flame,
and acts exactly like phosphorus. :3
+ It appeared to me in these experiments, that the worst conducting and
best radiating substances required to be heated higher for equal masses to .
produce the same effect upon the gases: thus, red hot charcoal had evi-
dently less power of inflammation than red hot iron.
heated
Some new Researches on Flame. 19
heated even to whiteness will not inflame mixtures of fire-
damp.
These circumstances will explain, why a mesh of wire so much
finer is required to prevent the explosion from hydrogen and
oxygen from passing, and why so coarse a texture and wire is
sufficient to prevent the explosion of the fire-damp, fortunately
the least combustible of the known inflammable gases.
The general doctrine of the operation of wire-gauze cannot
be better elucidated than in its effects upon the flame of sulphur.
When wire-gauze of 600 or 700 apertures to the square inch is
held over the flame, fumes of condensed sulphur immediately
come through it, and the flame is intercepted; the fumes con-
tinue for some instants, but as the heat increases they diminish ;
and at the moment they disappear, which is long before the gauze
becomes red hot, the flame passes; the temperature at which
sulphur burns being that at which it is gaseous.
Another very simple illustration of the truth of this view is
offered in the effect of the cooling agency of metallic surfaces
upon very small flames. Let the smallest possible flame be made
by a single thread of cotton immersed in oil, and burning im-
mediately upon the surface of the oil; it will be found to be
about 1-30th of an inch in diameter. Let a fine iron wire of
1-180th be made into a circle of 1-10th of an inch in diameter,
and brought over the flame. Thongh at such a distance, it will
instantly extinguish the flame, if it be cold: but if it be held above
the flame, so as to be slightly heated, the flame may be passed
through it without being extinguished. That the effect depends
entirely upon the power of the metal to abstract the heat of
flame, is shown by bringing a glass capillary ring of the same
diameter and size over the flame ; this being a much worse con-
ductor of heat, will not extinguish it even when cold, If its
size however be made greater, and its circumference smaller, it
will act like the metallic wire, and require to be heated to pre-
vent it from extinguishing the flame*.
Suppose a flame divided by the wire-gauze into smaller flames,
each flame must be extinguished in passing its aperture till that
aperture has attained a temperature sufficient to produce the
permanent combustion of the explosive mixture.
A flame of sulphur may be made much smaller than that of
hydrogen, that of hydrogen smaller than that of a wick fed with
* Let a small giobe of metal 1-20th of an inch in diameter made b
fusing the end of a wire be bronght near a flame of 1-30th in diameter, it
will extinguish it when cold at the distance of its own diameter; let it be
heated, and the distance will diminish at which it produces the extinction;
and at a white heat it does not extinguish it by actual contact, though at a
dull red heat it immediately produces the effect.
B2
oil,
20 Some new Researches on Flame.
oil, and that of a wick fed with oil smaller than that of car-:
buretted hydrogen; and a ring of cool wire which instantly ex-
tinguishes the flame of carburetted hydrogen, only slightly di-
minishes the size of a flame of sulphur of the same dimensions. -
Where rapid currents of explosive mixtures are made to act
upon wire-gauze, it is of course much more rapidly heated ; and
therefore the same mesh which arrests the flames of explosive
mixtures at rest, will suffer them to pass when in rapid motion ;
but by zxcreasing the cooling surface by diminishing the size, or
increasing the depth of the aperture, all lames, however rapid
their motion, may be arrested. Precisely the same law applies
to explosions acting in close vessels: very minute apertures when
they are only few in number will permit explosions to pass, which
are arrested by much larger apertures when they fill a whole
surface. A small aperture was drilled at the bottom of a wire-
gauze lamp in the cylindrical ring which confines the wire-gauze 5
this; though less than ]-18th of an inch in diameter, passed the
flame and fired the external atmosphere, in consequence of the
whole force of the explosion of the thin stratum of the mixture
included within the cylinder driving the flame through the aper-
ture ; though, had the whole ring heen composed of such aper-
tures separated by wires, it would have been perfectly safe.
Nothing can demonstrate more decidedly than these simple
facts and observations, that the interruption of flame by solid
tissues permeable to light and air, depends upon no recondite or
mysterious cause, but to their cooling powers, simply considered
as such. é
When a light included in a cage of wire-gauze,is introduced
into an explosive atmosphere of fire-damp at rest, the maximum
of heat is soon obtained; the radiating power of the wire, and
the cooling effect of the atmosphere, more efficient from the
mixture of inflammable air, prevent it from ever arriving at a
temperature equal to that of dull redness. In rapid currents of
explosive mixtures of fire-damp, which heat common gauze to a
higher temperature, twilled gauze, in which the radiating sur-
face is considerably greater, and the circulation of air less, pre-
serves an equal temperature. Indeed the heat communicated
to the wire by combustion of the fire-damp in wire-gauze lamps,
is completely in the power of the manufacturer; for by diminish-
ing the apertures and increasing the mass of metal, or the ra+
diating surface, it may be diminished to any extent.
1 have lately had Jamps made of thick twilled gauze of wires
of 1-40th, sixteen to the warp, and thirty to the weft, which
being riveted to the screw, cannot be displaced ; from its flexi-
bility it cannot be broken, and from its strength cannot be
crushed, except by a very strong blow, °
Even
Some new Researches on Flame. 21
Even in the common lamps the flexibility of the material has
been found of great importance ; and I could quote one instance
of a dreadful accident having been prevented, which must have
happened had any other material than wire-gauze been employed
in the construction of the lamp: and how little difficulty has oc-
curred in the practical application of the invention, is shown by
the circumstance, that it has been now for ten months in the
hands of hundreds of common miners in the most dangerous
mines in Britain, during which time not a single accident has
occurred where it has been employed, whilst in other mines, much
less dangerous, where it has not yet been adopted, some lives
have been lost, and many persons burned.
The facts stated in Section II. explain why so much more heat
is obtained from fuel when it is burnt quickly; and they show
that in all cases the temperature of the acting bodies should be
kept as high as possible, not only because the general increment
of heat is greater, but likewise, because those combinations are
prevented which at lower temperatures take place without any
considerable production of heat:—thus, in the Argand lamp, the
Liverpool lamp, and in the best fire-places, the increase of ef-
fect does not depend merely upon the rapid current of air, but
likewise upon the heat preserved by the arrangements of the
materials of the chimney, and communicated to the matters en-
tering into inflammation.
These facts likewise explain the methods by which tempera-
ture may be increased, and the limit to certain methods. Cur-
rents of flame, as it was stated in the last section, can never
raise the heat of bodies exposed to them, higher than a certain
degree, their own temperature ; but by compression, there can
be no doubt, the heat of flames from pure supporters and com-
bustible matter may be greatly increased, probably in the ratio
of their compression. In the blow-pipe of oxygen and hydro-
gen, the maximum of temperature is close to the aperture from
which the gases are disengaged, 7. ¢. where their density is
greatest. Probably a degree of temperature far beyond any that
has been yet attained may be produced by throwing the flame
from compressed oxygen and hydrogen into the Voltaic are, and
thus combining the two most powerful agents for increasing
temperature.
- The circumstances mentioned in this paper,combined with those
noticed in the paper on flame printed in Mr. Brande’s Journal of
Science and the Arts, explain the nature of the light of flames
and their form. When in flames pure gaseous matter is burnt,
the light is extremely feeble: the density of a common flame is
proportional to the quantity of solid charcoal first deposited and
afterwards burnt, The form of the flame is conical, because the
‘ greatest
22 Experimenis and Observations
greatest heat is in the centre of the explosive mixture. In
looking steadfastly at flame, the part where the combustible mat-
ter is volatilized is seen, and it appears dark, contrasted with the
part in which it begins to burn, that is where it is so mixed with
air as to hecome explosive. The heat diminishes towards the
top of the flame, because in this part the quantity of oxygen is
least. When the wick increases to a considerable size from
collecting charcoal, it cools the flame by radiation, and prevents
a proper quantity of air from mixing with its central part ; in
consequence, the charcoal thrown off from the top of the flame
is only red hot, and the greater part of it escapes unconsumed.
The intensity of the light of flames in the atmosphere is in-
creased by condensation, and diminished by rarefaction, appa-
rently in a higher ratio than their heat; more particles capable
of emitting light exist in the denser atmospheres, and yet most
of these particles, in becoming capable of emitting light, absorb
heat; which could not be the case in the condensation of a pure
supporting medium.
The facts stated in Section I. show that the luminous appear-
ances of shooting stars and meteors cannot be owing to any in-
flammation of elastic fluids, but must depend upon the ignition
of solid bodies. Dr. Halley calculated the height of a meteor
at ninety miles, and the great American meteor which threw
down showers of stones was estimated at seventeen miles high.
The velocity of motion of these bodies must in all cases be im-
mensely great, and the heat produced by the compression of the
most rarefied air from the velocity of motion must be probably
sufficient to ignite the mass; and all the phenomena may be
explained, if falling stars be supposed to he small solid bodies
moving round the earth in very eccentric orbits, which become
ignited only when they pass with immense velocity through the
upper regions of the atmosphere, and if the meteoric bodies which
throw dewn stones with explosions be supposed to be similar
bodies which contain either combustible or elastic matter.
Cobham-hall, Kent, Jan. 8, 1817.
SF
Some new Experiments and Observations on ihe Combustion of
Gaseous Mixtures, &c.
In a paper read before the Royal Society at their last two
meetings, I have described the phenomena of the slow com-
bustion of hydrogen and olefiant gas without flame. In the same
paper I have shown, that the temperature of flame is infinitely
higher than that necessary for the ignition of solid bodies. It
appeared to me, therefore, probable, that in certain combinations
of gaseous bodies, for instance, those above referred to, when
the
on the Combustion of Gaseous Mixtures. 23
the increase of temperature was not sufficient to render the
gaseous matters themselves luminous; yet still it might be
adequate to ignite solid matters exposed to them. I had de-
vised several experiments on this subject. I had intended to
expose fine wires to oxygen and olefiant gas, and to oxygen
and hydrogen during their slow combination under different cir-
cumstances, when | was accidentally led to the knowledge of the
fact, and, at the same time, to the discovery of a new and cu-
rious series of phenomena.
I was making experiments on the increase of the limits of the
combustibility of gaseous mixtures of coal gas and air by in-
erease of temperature. For this purpose, I .introduced a small
wire-gauze safe-lamp with some fine wire of platinum fixed
above the flame, into a combustible mixture containing the
maximum of coal gas; and when the inflammation had taken
place in the wire-gauze cylinder, I threw in more coal gas, ex-
pecting that the heat acquired by the mixed gas in passing
through the wire-gauze would prevent the excess from extin-
guishing the flame. The flame continued for two or three se-
conds after the coal gas was introduced; and when it was ex-
tinguished, that part of the wire of platinum which had been
hottest remained ignited, and continued so for many minutes,
and when it was removed into a dark room, it was evident that
there was no flame in the cylinder.
It was immediately obvious that this was the result which I
had hoped to attain by other methods, and that the oxygen and
coal gas in contact with the hot wire combined without flame,
and yet produced heat enough to preserve the wire ignited, and
to keep up their own combustion. J proved the truth of this
conclusion by making a similar mixture, heating a fine. wire of
platinum and introducing it into the mixture. It immediately
became ignited nearly to whiteness, as if it had been itself in
actual combustion, and continued glowing for a long while; and
when it was extinguished, the inflammability of the mixture was
found entirely destroyed.
A temperature much below ignition only was necessary for
“producing this curious phenomenon, and the wire was repeatedly
taken out and cooled in the atmosphere till it ceased to be visibly
red; and yet when admitted again, it instantly became red hot.
The same phenomena were produced with mixtures of olefiant
gas and air, carbonic oxide, prussic gas and hydrogen, and in
the last case with a rapid production of water; and the degree
of heat I found could be regulated by the thickness of the wire.
The wire, when of the same thickness, became more ignited in
ae than in mixtures of olefiant gas, and more in mixtures
of olefiant gas than in those of gaseous oxide of carbon.
BA4 When
24 Experiments and Observations
When the wire was very fine, about the +80th of an inch in
diameter, its heat increased in very combustible mixtures, so as
to explode them. The same wire in less combustible mixtures
only,continued bright red, or dull red, according to the nature
of the mixture.
In mixtures not explosive by flame within certain limits, these
curious phenomena took place whether the air or the inflamma-
ble gas was in excess.
The same circumstance occurred with certain inflammable
vapours. I have tried those of ether, alcohol, oil of turpentine
and naphtha. There cannot be a better mode of illustrating the
fact, than by an experiment on the vapour of ether or of alcohol,
which any person may make in a minute. Let a drop of ether
be thrown into a cold glass, or a drop of alcohol into a warm
one. Let a few coils of wire of platinum of the 1-60th or 1-70th
of. an inch be heated at a hot poker or a candle, and let,it be
brought into the glass ; it will in some part of the glass become
glowitig, almost white hot, and will continue so as long as a
sufficient quantity of vapour and of air remain in the glass.
When the experiment on the slow combustion of ether is made
in the dark, a pale phosphorescent light is perceived above the
wire, which of course is most distinct when the wire ceases to
be ignited. This appearance is connected with the formation of
a peculiar acrid volatile substance possessed of acid properties.
The chemical changes in general produced by slow combus-
tion appear worthy of investigation. A wire of platinum intro-
duced under the usual circumstances into a mixture of prussic
gas (cyanogen) and oxygen in excess became ignited to white-
ness, and the yellow vapours of nitrous acid were observed in the
mixture. And in a mixture of olefiant gas non-explosive from
the excess of inflammable gas, much carbonic oxide was formed.
I have tried to produce these phenomena with various metals ;
but I have succeeded only with platinum and palladium ; with
copper, silver, iron, gold, and zine, the effect is not produced.
Platinum and palladium have low conducting powers, and small
capacities for heat, compared with other metals; and these seem
to be the principal causes of their producing, continuing, and
rendering sensible these slow combustions.
I have tried some earthy substances which are bad conductors
of heat ; but their capacities and power of radiating heat appear
to interfere. A thin film of carbonaceous matter entirely de-
stroys the igniting power of platinum, and a slight coating of
sulphuret deprives palladium of this property, which must prin-
cipally depend upon their increasing the power of the. metals to
radiate heat. i
Thin laminz of the metals, if their form admits of a free cir-
culation
on the Combustion of Gaseous Mixtures. 25
eulation of air, answer as well as fine wires; and a large surface
of platinum may be made red hot in the vapour of ether, or in
a combustible mixture of coal gas and air.
I need not dwell upon the connection of these facts respecting
slow combustion, with the other facts I have described in the
history of flame. Many theoretical views will arise from this
connection, and hints for new researches, which I hope to be
able to pursue in another communication. I shall now con-
clude by a practical application. By hanging some coils of fine
wire of platinum, or a fine sheet of platinum or palladium, above
the wick of his lamp, in the wire-gauze cylinder, the coal miner,
there is every reason to believe, will be supplied with light in
mixtures of fire-damp no longer explosive; and should his flame
be extinguished by the quantity of fire-damp, the glow of the
metal will continue to guide him; and by placing the lamp in
different parts of the gallery, the relative brightness of the wire
will show the state of the atmosphere in these parts. Nor can
there be any danger with respect to respiration whenever the
wire continues ignited, for even this phenomenon ceases when
the foul air forms about 2-5ths of the volume of the atmosphere,
I introduced into a wire-gauze safe-lamp a small cage made
of fine wire of platinum of the 1-70th of an inch in thickness,
and fixed it by means of a thick wire of platinum about two
inches above the wick which was lighted. I placed the whole
apparatus in a large receiver, in which, by means of a gas-holder,
the air could be contaminated to any extent with coal gas. As
soon as there was a slight admixture of coal gas, the platinum
became ignited; the ignition continued to increase till the flame
of the wick was extinguished, and till the whole cylinder became
filled with flame; it then diminished. When the quantity of
coal gas was increased so as to extinguish the flame; at the mo-
ment of the extinction the cage of platinum became white hot,
and presented a most brilliant light. By increasing the quantity
of the coal gas still further, the ignition of the platinum beeame
less vivid. When its light was barely sensible, small quantities
of air were admitted, its heat speedily increased ; and by regu-
lating the admission of coal gas and air it again became white
hot, and soon after lighted the flame in the cylinder, which as
usual, by the addition of more atmospherical air, re-kindled the
flame of the wick.
_ This experiment has been very often repeated, and always with
the same results. When the wire for the support of the cage,
whether of platinum, silver, or copper, was very thick, it re-
tained sufficient heat to enable the fine platinum wire to re-
kindle in a proper mixture a half a minute after its light had
been
26 On the Combustion of Gaseous Mixtures.
been entirely destroyed by an atmosphere of pure coal gas; and by
increasing its thickness the period might be made still longer,
The phenomenon of the ignition of the platinum takes place
feebly in a mixture consisting of two of air and one of coal gas, and
brilliantly in a mixture consisting of three of air and one of coal
gas: the greater the quantity of heat produced the greater may
be the quantity of the coal gas, so that a large tissue of wire will
burn in a more inflammable mixture than single filaments, and a
wire made white hot will burn in a more inflammable mixture
than one made red hot. Ifa mixture of three parts of air and
one of fire-damp be introduced into a bottle, and inflamed at its
point of contact with the atmosphere, it will not explode, but
will burn like a pure inflammable substance. If a fine wire of
platinum coiled at its end be slowly passed through the flame,
it will continue ignited in the body of the mixture, and the same
gaseous matter will be found to be inflammable and to support
combustion.
. There is every reason to hope that the same phenomena will
occur with the cage of platinum in the fire-damp, as those which
have been described in its operation on mixtures of coal gas. In
trying experiments in fire-damp, the greatest care must be taken
that no filament or wire of platinum protrudes on the exterior
of the lamp, for this would fire externally an explosive mixture.
However small the mass of platinum which kindles an explosive
mixture in the safe-lamp, the result is the same as when large
masses are used; the force of the explosion is directed to, and
the flame arrested by, the whole of the perforated tissue.
When a large cage of wire of platinum is introduced into a
very small safe-lamp, even explosive mixtures of fire-damp are
burnt without flame; and by placing any cage of platinum in
the bottom of the lamp round the wick, the wire is prevented
from being smoked. I have sent lamps furnished with this ap-
paratus to be tried in the coal mines of Newcastle and White-
haven: and I anxiously wait for the accounts of their effects in
atmospheres in which no other permanent light can be produced
by combustion.
London, Jan. 22, 1817.
Explanation of Figures, Plate I.
Fig. A is a small cage made of wire of platinum, of 1-70th or
1-80th of an inch in thickness, fastened to a wire for raising it
above the wick, for giving light in inflammable media, containing
too little air to be explosive.
Figures B and B are a similar cage for placing in the bottom
of the lamp, to prevent it from being smoked by the per a
. On
[ 27]
It. On Aérial Navigation. By Sir Geoncr Cavey, Bart.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — Sixce my last paper on Aérial Navigation, several
scattered observations have been made upon this subject in your
Magazine ; and although it has not met with all the encourage-
ment it deserves, yet it has received as much notice as can rea-
sonably be expected, when it is considered that it invites its sup-
porters to a subscription, during an unparalleled period of public
pecuniary privation. I am_ glad to find that a gentleman of di-
stinguished literary and scientific reputation has stated to you
his intention of subscribing fifty pounds towards any experiments
on this subject, that may be conducted by men of science; al-
luding, I conceive, to the committee proposed in one of my
papers. Mr. Evans has likewise signified his intention of sub-
scribing, in conjunction with Mr. Lovell Edgeworth* and myself.
It therefore becomes necessary to publish the present amount of
the subscriptions, which I propose, subject to the permission of
these two gentlemen, may be done in your Magazine for July; by
which time I hope a few more names may be added, and a fund
for experiments on the improvement of balloons be commenced,
which will in time enable the capabilities of this interesting in-
vention to be properly investigated and ascertained, under the
inspection of a committee of scientific persons, acting with the
advice of the best professional engineers in the country. Surely,
when it is considered that this leading discovery of suspending
heavy bodies in the air by balloons is but recent in our age ; and
that the cumbrous and expensive nature of their structure has
placed the proper scale of experiments far beyond the expense
that individuals chouse to appropriate to such purposes,—it can-
not be deemed absurd, or even unworthy a sense of national
pride, by a combined effort of intelligence and contribution, to
rescue this noble invention from for ever remaining a gaudy
bubble in the hands of exhibition-makers. All that I ask of
men of information upon matters of this nature is, to combine,
and to try such rational experiments, as would show by degrees
* Sir George will have learnt by this time that the gentleman whom he
here names is now no more. He was the gentleman who had agreed to sub-
scribe tifty pounds.—Enpir.
+ I stated jast year to Mr. Tilloch the amount of my subscription, as
the orizinal promoter, under certain conditions: for the present I shall say
50 pounds; but [ by no means wish gentlemen disposed to forward experi-
ments on this subject to subscribe upon a high scale, as a greater amount
may probably be obtaived in subscriptions of from one to ten ns:
10oWw
28 On Aérial Navigation.
how far it is practicable to guide balloons :—such a committee as
I propose would never enter into any of those projects which,
whether ultimately false or true, are at present too many steps
in advance to be proper objects of their immediate attention 5
but, commencing with what has been ascertained upon this sub-
ject, would advance step by step from that point, as far as the
present state of our knowledge of first moving powers will per-
mit.
The title and terms of the subscription I therefore propose to
be as follows : :
WE, the undersigned parties, enter into the following subscrip-
tion, for the purpose of ascertaining how far the principle of
balloons supporting heavy burthens in the air may be made use-
ful as a means of conveyance.
No person to be called upon for his subscription money till at
least 10007. be subscribed for.
When the subscription has reached this amount, an annual
committee of seven of the subscribers to be elected;—every sub-
seriber of one pound and of less than five pounds to have one vote
on this and all other occasions. Subscribers of five pounds to
have two votes; and subscribers of larger sums to have one ad-
ditional vote for every additional five pounds they subscribe.
No experiments to be undertaken but by order of this com-
mittee, who may call in the advice of such civil engineers as
they choose to consult.
An annual report of the application of the fund, and the result
of the experiments made, to be printed for the use of the sub-
scribers.
These regulations being the basis upon which the subscription
is made, cannot be altered; but subsequent rules not militating
against these, may be entered into at a general meeting of the
Subscribers, expressly convened for the purpose.
Having now stated my sentiments respecting the general bear-
ing of this subject, I proceed to notice some remarks that have
been made by others since my late papers. Mr. Evans has sug-
gested as an improvement upon the triple tier of wing waftage
-by the steam-engine, that a rotary movement with oblique sur-
faces will be preferable, on account of the continual loss of power
which he conceives to take place in putting these surfaces into
motion from a state of rest. This reasoning against reciprocat~
ing movements is in general perfectly correct, but in this case
the maxim does not hold good. ‘The whole power communi-
cated to these wafting surfaces is applied in the commencement
to
On Aérial Navigation. 29
to overcome the vis inmertie of the materials of which they are
composed, and the gradually increasing resistance of the air. To-
wards the termination of the waft, if the movement. be properly
contrived, the momentum accumulated in these surfaces will pro-
long the effective waft as much beyond the time when the effort
of the first mover has ceased, as will exactly restore the power
absorbed at the commencement of the action. Thus the whole
power will have been expended on the resistance of the air, and
consequently in propelling the balloon.
There are several difficulties of construction which occur in
rotative wafts; the chief of which are, giving firm support and
communicating motion to the axis at the necessary distance it is’
obliged to be placed from the boat ; whereas in the wing waftage
the hinge is on the solid frame of the boat. The wing con-
struction likewise offers an advantage of great importance,-—that
of providing, if properly managed, a safe descent in case of acci-
dent to the balloon, ‘The chief advantage of the rotary move-
ment is its uniform action. [ think either construction may be
made effectual, but [ prefer the wing plan as the easiest for our
first experiments. Mr. Evans may see in my early papers upon
this subject, that revolving flyers had not escaped my attention:
indeed, the first experiment I made upon the mechanical prin-
ciples of aérial navigation, was successfully executed, though ona
very small scale and by very simple means, upon this very plan*.
Some very ingenious observations on the subject of aérial na-
vigation are made by a correspondent in your Magazine for
March 1817. In the third paragraph, respecting the means of
vertical motion, the plan of condensing air into a second hal-
loon is adverted to as woithy of particular attention, This plan
of increasing the specific gravity by condensation, and lessening
it again by the escape of thle condensed air, was one of the earliest
suggestions of the balloon-makers; but, though founded on a true
principle, is quite inefficient in practice. The elastic pressure
of air increasing as its density, no cloth is able to bear the force
required: for instance, if a cloth be capable of resisting a lineal
tension of five hundred pounds to the foot, let a balloon twenty
feet in diameter be constructed of this cloth; it will readily be
found upon calculation, that only from seventeen to twenty pounds
of additional air can be pumped into it before it would arrive at
the proposed tension. Thus a huge impediment to motion
would be added to the machine, besides the additional bulk ,of
the supporting balloon necessary to carry the weight of this in-
cumbrance, without gaining any efficient power to compensate
for these disadvantages,
* Nicholson’s Journal for November 1809, p. 172.
In
50 On Aerial Navigaiton.
In the second paragraph, respecting lateral motion, it is ob~
served that the tacking plan, though worthy of much considera-
tion, is incapable of counteracting any considerable wind, “ asa
little calculation will show.’ I must here remark, that if your
correspondent will honour with his attention my statement
respecting a Montgolfian balloon constructed on the tacking
plan, in your Magazine for March 1816, and will recalculate
the powers of that construction, he will find that the horizontal
speed will be about twenty miles per hour in calm air; but he
must not, as he proposes, consider the major axis as elevated in
an angle of 45° with the horizon; but at an angle of 30°, which
will be found to cause the path of the machine to be in the for-
mer angle; 15° or 16° being lost, in what is similar to lee-way
in ships, according to the flatness of the top surface of the bal-
loon. Although a velocity of twenty miles per hour will not
overcome some winds, and would scarcely be at par with what
Mr. Smeaton calls ‘very brisk’’ in his table; yet it would over-
come what he terms “gently pleasant,” at a speed of sixteen
miles per hour ; and what he terms “ pleasant brisk,” at about
seven and a half. Very few days in the year have what is thus
called very brisk wind, and it is even in this case 32 to | that it
does not blow from that point of the compass which is the pro-
posed direction of steerage. In most oblique cases the power of
the machine will give a great command of diagonal steerage
within the semicircle opposed to the wind ; on either side it will
be no impediment ; and in the whole semicircle behind the wind
it will add to the velocity required. Hence, as on most occa-
sions a choice of time is left, winds will be of infinite use in
aérial navigation, even should twenty miles per hour, in calm air,
prove to be the limit to the velocity of these machines. The
difference of the currents in the upper and lower strata of the
atmosphere, it is well observed by your correspondent, will lend
great assistance to the steerage of balloons, as will also the sin-
gular fact of their following the direction of rivers, which is pro-
bably an electric phenomenon, rivers acting like discharging
rods by connecting the opposite electrical states of distant re-
gions of the atmosphere, as is exemplified by the greater frequency
of accidents from lightning on their banks than in ordinary si-
tuations.
In the third paragraph your correspondent states the failure
of oars in moving balloons to have arisen from their being ap-
plied to the car, in lieu of “ their line of pressure passing through
the centre of pressure of the whole system,” much of the power
being thus applied towards communicating a rotary movement
of the car round the balloon. J do not conceive this to be the
cause
On Aérial Navigation. 31
eause of failure, but the application of the power of one or two
-men, with very ill appropriated means, to perform what required
the strength of twice as many horses. With respect to the oblique
force noticed by your correspondent, I wish to refer him to the
case of a barge drawn along the centre of a canal by a rope to a
horse on the bank ;—no power is lost by this mode of draft, but
what arises from the actual path of the vessel not coinciding with
the line of its major axis, which slight increase of resistance is
foreign to the case of a spherical balloon, where simple gravita-
tion, and not the pressure of a fluid on an oblique plane, is the re-
straining force. This is best explained by a figure.
Let A, fig. 1, Plate I. be aballoon. B its car, propelled be-
yond the centre of suspension by any given power of waftage ;
draw AC perpendicular, and CB parallel to the horizon; and
let these lines be in the same ratio to each other as the weight
of the car is to the propelling power ; then the line AB will re-
present the whole action of the car upon the balloon. Draw
AD and BD, respectively, parallel to the two former lines, and
it becomes evident that the power of the compound force AB,
will have the same effect as the two forces AD, equal to CB,
the propelling power, and AC the weight of the car; which
being just balanced by the floating power that may be repre-
sented by BD, leaves the balloon to be carried along in its hori-
zontal path by the same force, as if dragged in the direct line
of its centre AD. I have been the more particular in my ob-
servations on this point, because I wish to show that long bal-
loons filled with hydrogen gas may be made use of at any distance
above the car they support, which may be found to render them
safe from the fire of the engine, and yet not be subject to any
loss of power from the waftage being applied to the car in lieu
of the balloon. Thirty or forty yards, if necessary, may inter-
vene between the balloon and top of the chimney of the fire
which works the engine. Wire-gauze, so celebrated of late for
preventing the communication even of explosive mixtures of hy-
drogen with each other, may interpose its magic web to cut off
any danger in this respect; and as the hydrogen gas balloon
must (for the sake of firm resistance to the external air, so as to
preserve the proper form of the prow) be inclosed in one of
coarser materials, into which common air can be pumped to the
required density between them, it becomes almost impossible
that any accident from fire can take place. A flexible leather
tube and cordage will thus form the only connection between the
boat and the balloon, The stupendous bulk of such balloons as
upon calculation appear capable of being made to convey con-
siderable burthens with the requisite degree of speed, forms the
chief
32 On Aérial Navigation.
chief obstacle to their introduction. This causes the expense
attending their structure and inflation, their tremendous power
if assailed by winds, and the difficulty of disposing of them when
not employed. The expense of structure would at present be
about 300/. per ton; but if these vessels became of general utility;
a much cheaper means of structure would probably soon be
found out. The expense of inflating them with hydrogen gas is
heavy by the present process; but as water consists of rather
more than a sixth part of its weight of pure hydrogen * ; and as
every portion of hydrogen according to its purity gives from
ten to twelve times its own weight of support in a balloon, it
follows that every ton of water that is decomposed for this pur-
pose, will suspend very nearly two tons of burthen in the air,
If this process, as I before suggested, be performed by exposing
red hot iron to the action of steam, it appears, from the known
proportion of oxygen in the black oxide thus formed+, that it
will take about a ton and a half of iron to each ton of supporting
power ; and hence an oven of three and a half yards cubed will
contain sufficient iron drops or borings, allowing one half of the
space for the free passage of the steam amongst them, to inflate
the balloon I have described of fifty tons power. As the oxide
will be reduced by melting the iron again in the ordinary way,
no metal would be lost; and the process would not be expensive
if conducted where coal and iron ore are found together, as is
frequently the case in this kingdom.
Charcoal will decompose water more rapidly and at a cheaper
rate; and although the carburetted hydrogen thus obtained is
generally much too heavy for inflating balloons ; yet as the com-
pound nature of this gas seems to vary according to the quantity
and circumstances under which the steam comes in contact with
the ignited charcoal; and as Lavoisier and Meusnier obtained
it at the specific gravity of 0-279, air being ‘1000, or rather
more than three and a half times lighter than air, it is very pro-
bable that some ready mode may be found of obtaining pure hy-
drogen by the simple action of combustibles upon steam, which
will render the floatage of balloons cheap enough for that or-
dinary use which, sooner or later, this principle was designed to
be of to mankind. Had hydrogen been a scanty substance, to
be found with difficulty, its remarkable levity, though attractive
as a matter of curious chemical research, would only have been
tantalizing, as exhibiting a means of suspending heavy bories in
* 85 Oxygen. + 27 Oxygen.
15 Hydrogen. 73 Iron.
100 Water. - 100 Black oxide.
e
On Aérial Navigation. 33
the air; but who will deny that in chemistry, as in every other
branch of natural knowledge, there exist palpable evidences of
design and adaptation, either of man to these elements, or of
the elements to the uses of man. I do not here allude to those
self-evident and immediate adaptations, such as light to the eye,
the structure of the lungs to the air we breathe, or of the sto-
mach to the water we drink; but those more indirectly adapted
to the pleasures, wants and conveniences of life: for instance,
iron, which is certainly the most useful of the metals, is the most
plentiful; its power of being made into steel for tools, capable,
by so simple an art as that of being suddenly cooled, of acquiring
any degree of hardness, so as even to cut steel itself ;—the ex-
traordinary power it has of becoming so far in a state of fusion
as to admit of being perfectly united under the hammer in a
welding heat, without losing the form it had been previously
wrought into, are, in the opinion of every enlightened workman,
evidences of design in its chemical structure as respecting the
- wants of mankind. No one can doubt that water, which seems
to form the basis of all the vegetable and animal juices, was
likewise designed as furnishing the means of navigation. Nature
is no niggard of that which she designs for the uses of her crea-
tures. The sun, in lighting up our enamelled acres, far outdoes
the utmost brilliancy of our nocturnal ball-rooms; and to hire
an acre of illumination equal to what this luminary bestows upon
it gratis, would cost from thirty to forty thousand per annum.
The very circumstance that every ton of water contains a power
of giving two tons of floatage to heavy bodies within the atmo-
sphere, is strong evidence that this may be intended as one of
the uses of the chemical arrangement of this plentiful element.
The rélative power of balloons to break away from their an-
chorage in a storm of wind, decreases under the circumstances
of magnitude and oblong structure I have proposed, in the same
ratio with the decrease of their resistance in passing through the
air. The horizontal drag of the balloon of fifty tons when at
anchor, and exposed to the various degrees of wind in Mr.Smea-
ton’s table, will be as follows :
Miles per Hour. Tons.
I
. Highwind’ 4°) ..°' 2. 32%
Very high wind .. .. 424 133
Storm or tempest .. .. 50 19
Great storm .. .. .. 60 27
Hence, even in the great storm, if the boat be anchored to
the earth, the wind would only cause the connecting ropes to
ineline back to an angle of 33° with a perpendicular, and by no
theans overcome the floating power and beat the ~balloon to the
earth so as to endanger it; provided the strength of the materials
Vol. 50. No. 231. July 1817. Cc were
34 On Aerial Navigation.
were such as to bear intense condensation sufiicient to preserve
the form of the prow under this load of pressure. This neces-
sity of balloons to bear considerable internal and external pres-
sure will oblige these machines to be made of strong materials,
and to be braced by a wide net of cordage. It will likewise be
necessary to make them in several compartments, like the sto-
machs of a leech, the power of the same cloth to resist conden-
sation being inversely as the diameters of the containing bag.
This additional weight will of course in the same degree diminish
the supporting power: however, it may be practicable by means
of tubes to each compartment, the mouths of which open exter-
nally to any required portion of the whole direct resistance of
the wind, so to proportion the internal pressure, as only slightly
to exceed the external in these respective compartments, and
thus much of the strain may be avoided. The pressure of the
atmosphere upen the skin of a moderate sized man amounts to
about eight tons ; but being balanced by an internal elasticity of
equal amount, his lungs play without difficulty, and no strain is
felt on any part of his skin. The necessity of having several
compartments in large balloons, though an evil as to weight, is
fully compensated for by the additional security it bestows :—by
this structure, an accidental rupture of one portion would not
cause a precipitate descent, as the floatage may be restored by a
commensurate discharge of ballast, or of goods, in case of per-
sonal danger to the crew. The front or prow portion may be
made of the strongest materials, and the hinder and middle por-
tion of those duly proportioned to the stress they have to sustain ;
whereas, if all the air be in one vessel, every part must be alike
capable of bearing the strongest strain. 1 would not have en-
tered so minutely into these points, so much in advance of the
present experimental state of the subject, were it not that the
reluctance that is felt by some persons to aid experiments upon:
balloons, arises from a hasty conviction that the difficulties at-
tending this subject are so great as to preclude all hopes of ul-
timately overcoming them: I wish to allow all the obstacles their
fair weight, but to meet them by such expedients as their nature
permits of, in doing which I fear I may have already trespassed
too much upon your pages; and shall therefore conclude this
paper with a very brief enumeration of the leading points that
ought to induce experiments upon balloons to be made. They
offer a direct swift and easy floatage from any one point to every
other on the face of our globe. ‘Their relative resistance de-
creases inversely to their power of support; so that the large
balloon of fifty tons formerly described, will meet with no more
resistance than the bird from which its form is taken, weight for
weight, Every ton of decomposed water gives two tons of float-
ing
Remarks on Sir Richard Phillips's New Hypothesis. 35
tng power. They would keep aloft, and be firm and steady in
their position under anchorage, even in storms. The large bai-
Joon described, would pack up when out of use in a chamber
within the boat eight yards by four, and thus render the ap-
paratus compact on shore; and in thé atmosphere there is unli-
mited space to accommodate any bulk with equal ease, especially
when it is considered that every increase of it implies an increasé
of levity, and not of weight. Their structure being double, like
a leathern foot-ball containing a bladder, the thin silken bag of
hydrogen would not be exposed to any violence; and this gas
being compressed on all sides alike by the condensed air sur-
rounding it, would have no tendency to escape, during the ac-
tion of the wind on the prow, as it would in the case of a com-
mon balloon, if at anchor or swiftly impelled through the air.
Danger from fire may be nearly excluded by the proper pre-
cautions. The same power that creates their progressive hori-
zontal motion will effect their elevation and depression, by the
application of an horizontal rudder or sail, and their steerage to
either side by a vertical one. This will easily be understood
from the sketch, ‘fig. 2, Plate I. which represents a side view of
the arrangement of the moving and steering sails of a balloon
on the wing plan. Fig. 3 represents an end-view of a balloon
with rotary flyers. Neither of these sketches shows any of the
connecting parts belonging to their movements, which would
have made the drawing confused.
I remain, sir, -
Your obliged and obedient servant,
Brompton, May 12, 1817. Gro. CAYLEY.
ee
III. Remarks on Sir Ricuarp Purtups’s New Hypothesis.
By Tuomas Trepeorp, Esq.
AG He his fabric of the heavens
Hath left to their disputes, perhaps to move
His laughter at their quaint opinions wide.”— Milton.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Siz, A SLIGHT consideration must convince any person,
that the phenomena of the universe cannot be the result of any
continued chain of mechanical causes; and that, ultimately, we
must arrive at some elements and powers or properties which
can only be referred to the First Cause, “ which certainly is not
mechanical,” :
Reasoning on mechanical principles can be applied only to
C2 : discover
36 Remarks on Sir Richard Phillips's New Hypothesis.
discover the proportional effects of modified causes—all such
reasoning being made on the presupposition of some active powers
which we know from experience, will produce the same effects
under the same circumstances,—and when philosophical in-
quirers have traced all the phenomena of Nature to these ori-
ginal elements and powers, physical science may then be con-
sidered in its most perfect state. These elements and powers
being the first principles of physical science, the combination and
modification of them producing all the phenomena of Nature, it
is desirable that they should be free from every thing that even
has the appearance of being assumed without a sufficient founda-
tion.
Attraction is one of those principles which have from time to
time raised the scruples of philosophical inquirers, and particu-
larly that kind of attraction which Newtonians call gravitation.
The cause of attraction—if it has any other than the fiat of the
Creator—appears to be placed beyond the powers of the human
understanding ; but its existence is proved by an abundant class
of phenomena. .. That bodies attract each other when in contact
few will be inclined to doubt;—but this being admitted, is any new
difficulty created by supposing them to act at a distance? Sup-
pose two bodies in contact are held together by attraction, why
should an infinitely small distance totally destroy this force? Is
it not. more probable that the power decreases inversely as some
function of the distance, than that it should abruptly cease at
the instant of separation? Is it not proved by magnetical,
electrical, chemical, and optical experiments, that attraction ope-
rates when bodies are not in contact? and, does not gravitation
afford a satisfactory solution of the various phenomena of the
solar system? which is not to be obtained by the introduction
of any other Sn whatever. This your correspondent: Sir
Richard Phillips is disposed to deny; and imagines that he has —
discovered the mechanical cause of the phenomena that appear
to be the result of attraction. But his demonstrations, if such
they can be called, are certainly of a very questionable nature.
Sir Richard takes it for granted, that the earth is moving in
its orbit—but does not seem to be aware that attraction or some
equivalent force is necessary to produce this motion.- But, to
meet him on his own supposition, let us admit that the elliptical
motion of the earth is fully accounted for,—and then examine
the circumstances which he supposes would have an influence.
on the descent of a body to the earth’s surface.
In the first place, the resistance of the air will not have any
tendency to force the body downwards. To remove all the cir-
cumstances that are not connected with the descent of the body,
- eet
Remarks on Sir Richard Phillips’s New Hypothesis. 37
let us suppose a ball to be dropped from the top of a high tower;
in this case the air’s resistance will retard the motion of the ball,
instead of causing it to descend.
Secondly. The rotation of the earth cannot possibly deflect
the ball downwards, because that, if the ball were acted upon:
by the rotary force only, it would fly off in the direction of a
tangent to the earth’s surface; consequently the rotary motion’
of the earth would have an opposite effect to that ascribed to it
by Sir Richard.
Thirdly. That the annual motion of the earth cannot force the
ball downward Sir Richard must know from the illustrations he has
cited respecting the falling of bodies on board a ship in motion.
And, as none of these forces taken singly has a tendency to
move the ball towards the earth’s surface, it follows from the
composition of motion that the joint action of these forces will
not have any such tendency.
As to the angle Sir Richard has drawn as the measure of the
deflective force, he might have made it any thing or nothing—
just as was most convenient ; consequently projectiles, if his
reasoning be correct, would be subject to different laws in dif-
ferent parts of the earth at the same time, and at the same place
to different laws at different times: but I do not find that he’
has made any experimental researches on this subject.
Sir Richard’s anxious desire to make his hypothesis agree with’
the known phenomena of falling bodies has led him into a trifling
geometrical error. The spaces described by the points C and F
(see his figure, Phil. Mag., No. 230, p. 436,) in the same time
will be as the circumferences of the circles they move in; and the
circumferences of circles are as their radii, and not as the squares -
of their radii, as Sir Richard supposes.
Sir Richard is also incorrect in supposing that the effect of
the rotary motion of the earth on falling bodies has not been
considered: it was one of the strongest objections that were
made against the Copernican system,—that if a stone were let
fall from the top of a high tower, it would strike the ground con-
siderably to the westward of the foot of the tower.
And as the experiments and reasonings of Galileo had not yet
instructed men in the inertia of matter, nor in the composition
of motion, the followers of Copernicus were unprovided with
the true answer to this objection; viz. that the stone was a
part of the earth, and therefore the annual and diurnal motions
which were natural to the earth, were also natural to the stone;
consequently the stone would retain the same motion with the
tower, and strike the ground at the foot of it.
A more accurate investigation of the subject has led others to
conclude, that the stone would fall a little to the eastward of the
C3 point
a8. New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy.
point over which it commenced its motion, in consequence of the
velocity of rotation being greater at the top than at the bottom
of the tower. The celebrated Laplace is said to have investi-
gated this effect of the rotary motion of the earth, in the “ Bud-
letin des Sciences,’ No. 75.
The Newtonian theory, on which the whole of physical astro-
nomy is founded, asserts nothing more of gravitation, than that
the result answers to the supposition, in every case, as far as ob-
servation reaches. Gravitation is not an occult quality, but a
manifest property of matter, its truth appearing from the phe-
nomena. And among these the attraction of mountains is a
most direct and decisive proof that every particle of matter is
endued with the power of attraction.
The effect of the mountain Chimborago in Peru, on the plumb-
line of the French philosophers ; the experiments on the moun-
tain Schehallien, by Dr. Maskelyne; the experiments at Mar-
seilles, by Baron de Zach; and the interesting experiments of
Mr. Cavendish*, are each of them an experimental proof that
matter gravitates; and together form so complete and so con-
sistent a body of experimental evidence, that, were the evidence,
derived from theory less perfect than it is, this would establish
the truth of Newton’s theory. .
In a paper which indirectly accuses Newton of superstition,
—which, in the idea of its author, will render it necessary to ‘ re-
model”’ his ‘* Principia,” and which professes to develop princi-
ples which will overturn the whole system of modern philosophy,—
we certainly should expect to find something to correspond with
these lofty pretensions, or at least something so plausible that
we might admire even while we were obliged to condemn: but
even in this its author has failed; he only shows that he is as
imperfectly acquainted with his subject as he is with the subor-
dinate sciences; that he knows little of the authors he pretends
to refute, and still less of the system they have supported.
London, July 7, 1817. T. TREDGOLD.
IV, New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. By Ezexiex
Waker, Esq. of Lynn, Norfolk.
[Continued from vol. xlix. p. 354.]
Tue geometrician always defines the terms that he intends to
use, before he begins to demonstrate a proposition ; and the same
rule ought to be observed in all physical investigations; for, if the
meanings of the terms made use of be not understood, the in-_
vestigations must be doubtful.
* Phil. Trans, 1798. ests
According
New’ Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. 39
* According to the new theory, water consists of two principles,
hydrogen and oxygen. . Now before we begin to inquire into the
truth of this theory, it will be necessary to understand the mean-
ings of those terms. Dr. Henry observes that “ every gas, it
must be remembered, has at least two ingredients; the one
gravitating matter, which, if separate, would probably exist in
a solid or a liquid form; the other an extremely subtile fluid,
termed caloric. In the example before us, caloric (and perhaps
electricity and light) is a common ingredient both of hydrogen
and oxygen gases; but the two differ in having different bases,
The basis of the one is called hydrogen, of the other oxygen 5
and water may, therefore, be affirmed to be a compound, not
of hydrogen and oxygen gases, but of hydrogen and oxygen*.”
Dr. Murray observes that * the action of electricity affords a
mode of resolving water into its constituent gases, and of com-
bining those again so as to reproduce itt.”
Now according to these statements, water is a compound
of hydrogen and oxygen ;—and hydrogen and oxygen are the .
component parts of water! This is nothing more than arguing
in a circle; yet such is the basis on which is built the much
celebrated fabric of the French doctrine of the composition of
water. :
As the component parts of water, according to the French
hypothesis, consist of two ponderable matters, why are they not’
exhibited in a solid or a liquid form, divested of that supposed
** extremely subtile fluid termed caloric?” But this, I believe,
has never been effected; and therefore, till this be done, the ex-
istence of those mutters can only be looked upon as an ingenious
opinion, founded on conjecture.
If we were to reason from what we know, we might say that
water is the basis of the two gases; but if we were to reason
from principles the truth of which we do not know, we might
then indeed conclude with M. Lavoisier and his ‘associates, that
the bases of the two gases in question are two unknown pon-
derable bodies called hydrogen and oxygen {.
_We need only take a transient view of some of the grandest
phenomena of Nature, to be convinced that the decomposition
and recomposition of water are common operations. The water
which falls from the clouds upon the surface of the earth is fre-
quently converted into two invisible gases, by the two elements
of combustion contained in the earth or upon its surface; and
these gases ascending iuto the atmosphere become a part of it.
* Henry’s Elements of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 206.
+ Murray’s Elements of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 504. t
{ Dr. Henry observes that “ we have no knowledge of the properties of
oxygen in a state of complete separation.”—Heary’s Chem. vol. i, p. 177.
: 4
When
40 On the Trigonometrical Survey.
When the two elements of combustion, thus carried up into the
atmosphere, come into contact, thunder and lightning are pro-
duced; the light and heat thus generated fly off, and the water,
which. for med the bases of the two gases, is recomposed, and
descends to the earth in a shower of hail, rain, or snow.
Now if we examine the following experiments on water, we
shall find them exactly similar to those just mentioned ; for the
same undeviating law which takes place upon the surface of our
globe, and in the atmosphere that surrounds it, obtains in the,
laboratory of the chemist.
When a Leyden jar is discharged a certain number of times
into a drop of water, this fluid is wholly converted into two gases,
which are equal in weight to the drop of water. Now, as no-
thing is present in this experiment, but water and the two ele-
ments which were>contained in the jar, the two gases are com=
pounds, consisting of those elements and water. Thermogen,
the element of heat, converts a portion of the water into an in-
visible gas: photogen, the element of light, converts the other
part of the water into another gas; water being the bases of
the two aérial fluids. The two elements are kept separate by
their bases; but an electric spark being passed through them, com-
bustion:is produced, and the bases of the two gases are resolved
into a drop of water, of the same weight as the two gases; the
two elements being imponderable. I think it would be wander-
ing very far from that simplicity which is every where seen in
the operations of Nature’s laws, to suppose (for it can only be a
supposition) that the bases of the two gases are not water, but
two new matters; and when the gases are decomposed, these
unknown matters are converted into water.
Lynn, June 30, 1817, EzEKIEL WALKER.
: [To be continued. ]
V. Extract of a Letter from Colonel MuncE to WILLIAM
BrackwooD, Esq. relative to the Trigonometrical Survey*.
Edinburgh, June 7, 1817
Sir, I HAVE the honour to inform you, that in consequence of
the trigonometrical survey, carried on under my direction, having
been brought on so far into the north as to admit of the descrip-
tion of the longest meridional line passing through Great Britain,
M., Biot, under the authority of both the French and English
Governments,.is arrived in England for the purpose of doing, in
the several parts of our arc, the same series of experiments that
had been formerly done by himself and the Commission of the
Board of Longitude, at Formentera, one of the Balearic Islands
* From the Edinburgh Monthiy Magazine for June 1817. ’
in
= «
On-the Trigonometrical Survey. 4}
in the Mediterranean, and other stations on the French meridian,
proceeding from thence to Dunkirk.
The object of these experiments is, to ascertain the force of
gravity at certain parts of our meridian, as connected with that
of France and Spain. The pendulum is now erecting in Leith
Fort, where every convenience offers itself for the experiment,
and every wish has been anticipated by the chief engineer, Sir
Howard Elphinstone. When the operations shall be completed,
we propose to proceed to Kirkwall in the Orkneys, and near
that place, or some more convenient situation, if any such can
be found, we shall again set up the pendulum, and the ordnance
zenith sector, the workmanship of the late celebrated Mr. Rams-
den. Thus, while the experiments are carrying on to ascertain
the force of gravity in that quarter, the observations will be made
ou proper stars near to the zenith, hereafter to be also observed,
in finding the amplitude of the whole meridional are. The base,
now nearly completed in its measurement by Captain Thomas
Colby of the Royal Engineers, in the vicinity of Aberdeen, will
verify the sides of the triangles towards the northern part of our:
are, connecting the Orkney Islands with the main land. It is
probable that M. Biot and myself will leave this quarter for In-
verness (where the ordnance sector is now deposited) about the
end of this month ; and we think it likely, if the weather should
be fair, that our operations in the Orkneys will be finished early
in August. When these observations shall be completed, we
shall proceed to Yarmouth, on the coast of Norfolk, whic!s lies
nearly on the meridian of Formentera produced, and there we
hope to be joined by M. Arago, member of the Institute of
France, and one of the Commissioners of the Board of Longitude.
By this co-operation, having accurately ascertained the latitude
of this place, a notable addition will be made to the arc running
south from Formentera to Dunkirk, independent of the great
one, running north to the Orkneys; for we hope that the dif-
ference of longitude (being only a few degrees) will not have suf-
ficient influence to interfere with the importance of this last con-
nexion. We will repeat the experiments of the pelldulom at
Yarmouth, and afterwards proceed to Blackdown, near Wey-
mouth, to the meridional limit of the English are, where, having
again observed the pendulum, and made observations with the
zenith sector, on the same stars as are to be observed in the
Orkneys, our united operations will close with Messrs. Biot and
Arago erecting their clock at the Royal Observatory at Green-
wich, Jt was to be always expected, that whenever peace should
arrive, the science of France and England would affiliate, and by
the united operations, in this par ticular, determine the magni-
tude and figure of the earth, by experiments carried on on a greater
scale
42 Experiments on Vegetation.
scale than could be done individually, and with the utmost nicety
and exactness. The whole are from Formentera to the Orkneys
will contain nearly 22° of the earth’s meridian; and thence the
quadrantal are of the whole meridian, extending from the equa-
tor to the pole, being ascertained, will afford the best of all pos-
sible standards of length and capacity, whenever it shall be de-
termined by the legislatures of both countries to equalize their
weights and measures by the same-common standard. ‘The
great are deduced from these operations will be found to pass
over a part of Spain, all France and Great Britain; Belgium has
already followed the example of France, and has taken the stand-
ard from the same natural source. Thus, if by this participation,
the three nations, from their united meridian, should agree to
take the same standard derived from it, there seems little reason
to doubt, the rest of the world, without loss of time or difficulty,
would follow their example. W. Munce.
VI. Experiments on Vegetation, tending to correct some er-
roneous Opinions entertained respecting the Effects of ihe
tation on the Atmosphere. By Mr. J. Tarum.
To Mr. Tilloch,
zs
Sir, — Paz opinion that the atmosphere is improved by vege-
tation has been supported by so many celebrated philosophers,
for the last forty years, that few or none doubt its correctness.
But in spite of authority, having long observed the very great
analogy which exists between the animal and vegetable king-
doms in other respects, J could not but think that the anomaly
respecting the effects supposed to be produced on the atmo-
sphere by vegetation was incorrect ; and that a wish to discover
in Nature a method to reconvert the carbonic acid gas, liberated
by animals, into oxygen, had betrayed the authors of this hypo-
thesis into an error. I shall not occupy your pages in particu-
larizing their various experiments, which even militated against
their own doctrine; but beg to observe, that in general they were
not conducted in a manner so natural and correct as to warrant
the conclusions drawn from them. To ascertain the effects of
vegetation on the atmosphere, I contend that the vegetables sub-
mitted to experiment ought not to be immersed in pump or car-
bonated water, nor ina carbonated atmosphere, as that is by no
means the natural situation of plants, or indeed of any living body.
To expect living bodies to perform their natural functions in
unnatural situations is an absurdity; and to avoid this, I insti-
tvited a number of experiments which I thought more analogous
to
ES
Experiments on Vegetation, 43
to Nature, in order to determine what were the real effects of
vegetation and vegetables on the atmosphere.
As germination is the first process of vegetation, I shall com-
mence by calling your attention to the effects of that part of the
physiology of vegetation on the air of the atmosphere.
Exp.\. For this purpose I placed a number of peas, barley,
&c. to germinate in a given portion of atmospherical air in a
glass receiver (the mouth of which was confined by mercury, ina
groove turned in a slab of beech-wood. My reason for this me-
thod was to avoid the action of water on the air of the receiver,
as well as to prevent a large portion of mercury being exposed
to the same. The upper part of the receiver was furnished with
a cock, to which | could attach a syringe, and draw out a por-
tion of air to be examined, without disturbing the apparatus; to
which also a funnel was ovcasionally attached, to supply water
to the plant when necessary),
After a short time I found germination stop; but on 1 lifting
up the receiver so as to allow some air to escape and fresh air
to enter, germination again commenced: this I repeated several
times with similar results. Finding that germination ceased
when seed was so confined, I had no doubt but that some altera-
tion must have. been produced on that fluid in which they had
been inclosed.. My next inquiry was to ascertain what this al-
teration was: for which purpose I agitated the air with lime-
water. A considerable turbidness was the result; 1-13th was
absorbed, and 4 inches of it with 2 in. of nitrous gas occupied
4°4 in.—but 4 in. of common air and 2in. nitrous air occupied
only 3°9 in. ; from which we see that there was an abstraction of
oxygen from the air of the receiver and a formation of carbonic
acid gas,—most likely the oxygen of the atmosphere united
with the carbon of the seed and produced the carbonic acid gas.
Exp. II. I placed a portion of barley to germinate in a similar
manner; and when germination appeared | to cease, | examined
the air. To 2 in, I put 1 in. of nitrous gas, which occupied 3 in.,
so that no diminution whatever took place; consequently the
whole of the oxygen had disappeared and formed some combi -
nation; at the same time 2 in. of atmospherical and | in. nitreus
air occupied only 1:8 in.
Exp. 11. August 10,1816. Twosmall scarlet beans growing
in a pot, and exposed to the sznshine, were bent under a re-
ceiver and confined by mercury. At the expiration of seven days
2 in. of the air and | in. of nitrous gas equalled 1°45 in. ; but
the above quantities of atmospherical air and nitrous gas equalled
1:42 in., consequently this process of vegetation had somewhat
injured the air by abstracting its oxygen.
eeep IV, June 4, 1816. An entire turf composed of Dutch
clover
44 Experiments on Vegetation.
clover and grass (the area of which was 20 in.) was confined
under a receiver (whose capacity was 150 in.) over mercury for’
three days, and occasionally watered through the cock at the
top of the receiver. When the air was examined, 2 in. of it and
oue of nitrous equalled 2°3 in, But 2 in. of atmospherical and
1 in. of nitrous =1-9 in. I have repeated these experiments at
various periods, and have always obtained similar results.
Exp.V. Sept. 6, 1816. A dish containing a portion of stone-
crop in a yery healthy state, was placed under a receiver over
mercury; and at the expiration of ten days I found 2 in. of the
air and 1 in. of nitrous gas = 1°47 in., while the same propor-
tions of common air and nitrous gas = 1°44 in.
Exp.V1i. July 25, 1816. Several sprigs of bergamot mint
growing in a pot were bent under a receiver as usual ; and in six
days I found 2 in. of the air and | in. of nitrous gas =1°42 in.
full; and 2 in. of common air and 1 in. of nitrous gas = 1°42
bare.
Perhaps it may be remarked, that the two last experiments
produced but little effects on the atmosphere: but let it be re-
collected that the object of these experiments was to ascertain
whether vegetation inyproved the air of the atmosphere, by im-
parting to it oxygen: and we see that in no instance what-
ever was the air of the atmosphere improved hy vegetation 5
but on the contrary it was always somewhat injured, and in some
instances the whole of the oxygen disappeared. Is it not fair
then to conclude that, so far from vegetation improving the at-
mosphere, by decomposing the carbonic acid gas generated by
animal respiration and combustion and liberating its oxygen,
it like them combines with oxygen and generates the same kind
of gas?
Having so far identified the physiological operations of the
animal and vegetable kingdoms on the air of the atmosphere,
I next tried the effects of factitious airs on plants, to see how far
they might correspond with the effects of the same gases on the’
animal ceconomy.
For this purpose I selected that plant which I could act upon
in the most natural manner. Experiments VII. VIII. and EX.
Three turfs of clover and grass were placed under receivers (as in
the former experiments). The first was inclosed in nitrogen gas;
the second in carbonic acid gas; and the third in atmospherical
air (as a standard by which to compare the other two).
They were all placed in the open air, and exposed to the vi-
cissitudes of day aud night, sunshine and cloudy.
The effegt of the nitrogen on the first turf was evident in
one hour, by the leaves.of the clover beginning to collapse and:
the leafstalks ta bend; the leaves became yellow, and in ol
ays
Geological Queries regarding the Stratu of Durham, &c. 45
days the whole turf was completely dead, and when removed
from the receiver possessed a very offensive and putrid smell.
The second turf, which was exposed to carbonic acid gas, be-
trayed signs of decay on the second day, similar to the above,
but not so quick: on the fifth day this turf was completely dead.
The third turf, which was inclosed in atmospherical air during
ithe above time, did not appear altered, except that the grass
had grown considerably higher than when first introduced.
We have here further corroborating proofs of the agreement
of the animal and vegetable kingdoms in the points under ex-
amination. We proved in our former experiments that vege-
tables, like animals, convert the oxygen of the atmosphere into
carbonic acid gas; and in these latter experiments we find that
those very gases which are fatal to animals are equally so to ve-
getables.
I could extend this paper to a much greater length, by se-
lections from my Journal of the effects of fruits, fowers, new-cut
grass, &c. on the atmosphere ; in all of which the air of the at-
mosphere was much injured, and in most cases the whole of the
oxygen was converted into carbonic acid gas in a few days. But
fearing that I have already trespassed on the limits of your pub-
lication, I conclude,
Yours, &c. .
Dorset-street, Salisbury-square, J. Tatrum:
July 10,1817. ©
VII. Geological Queries to Mr. Wesrcartn Forster, Mr.
Wincn, Mr. Frayer, &c. regarding the Basaltic and other
Strata of Durham, Northumberland, &c. Sc. By A Cor-
RESPONDENT.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — Ir has given me sincere pleasure to observe at length,
Mr.Westgarth Forster, becoming a Correspondent in your very
useful Magazine ;—I hope that in future he will become, like
myself, a constant reader of your Work, and that he will often
repeat his communications thereto, on Geological and Mining
subjects. I beg to thank him for his attention, in p. 401 of
your last volume, to two of my Queries, in p. 108 of your xlvth
volume, and to request his early attention™, to several further -
* I presume to hope and request, that some regular Subscriber to your
Magazine, who may be in habits of intimacy with Mr. W.F., or who may
live near to him, will early inform him of the request now made, and pro-
mote his reply, by the offer of the loan of their copy of your Work, for
such purpose. :
Queries
46 Geological Queries regarding Basalt, tc.
Queries, which I have taken the liberty of putting, in p. 12 of
your xlviith volume, and pages 122 and 251 of your last volume,
and that he will favour myself and many others of your Readers,
to whom I know the same would be highly agreeable, with his
full and explicit answers, to all such of these queries, as his
local knowledge of the northern parts of England, may now, or
hereafter enable him.
Particularly, as my 2d question intimates, as to Lhe fact, whether
or not, the ‘* great whin sill’’ or stratum of Basalt (shown in
p- 152 of his ‘* Treatise on a Section of the Strata,’”’ &e. a very
useful and cheap Work, printed and sold by Preston, of New-
eastle) has not such a continuous edge on the surface, as clearly
indicates it to form, like each of the other principal Strata, a
vast extended plane (having, curved parts), within the Earth,
conformally, with its under-lieing and with its over-lieing strata:
although is great variation of thickness, from eight fathoms to
more than thirty fathoms (as is mentioned, p. 41 of the Treatise)
may occasion its basset-range to assume, locally, the appearance
of detached and over-lieing masses of Basalt, so as very closely
to “ resemble those of the King’s Park at Edinburgh,” as Mr.
Winch has truly observed, in page 101 of your xlviith volume. —
It seems therefore material I should mention here, that since
Mr. Winch made this remark, the environs of Edinburgh have, |
for the first time [ believe, been mapped by an experienced Mi-
neral Surveyor, Mr. John Farey Sen., who is said to have minutely
examined every part of the surface of the District; the immediate
object of which Survey was, to ascertain the situations, extent
' and positions, of the porous and the water-tight Strata or Dykes,
which supply or intercept the springs of Water, in the district
around that City; and from which examination it results, as I
am informed*, that ** the Strata of the King’s Park,’ are now
divested, of all the peculiarities which, on the one hand certain
Jamesonian Theorists, from the application of their Geognostic
Dogmas to insufficient Observations, had inferred and said, as to
the same consisting,of unconformably over-lieing Basaltic masses,
as detached parts, of the most recently formed or latest deposited
Strata, of the district ; and on the other hand, what certain Play=
fairian .
* Lately, ina Letter from a Friend in Edinburgh, who says, that a manu
script copy of such parts of the Report of Mr. Farey, as have been delivered
to the Lord Provost and Corporation, which describe the Strata and relate
* tothe Springs, isin prevate circulation there. It wilf remain now therefore |
to be seen, whether the Edinburgians, who hitherto have so readily and
warmly entered into disputes on Geological Theories, will cause these lo-
calized descriptions of the principal Strata, and their very curious ranges
and positions, in the vicinity of their City, to be published, and candidly
examined: and whether they will in any way call for, and make the large
Mineral Map known, from whence, as my Correspondent says, these de-
. scriptions
ee
aa ek
On the Strata of the Environs of Edinburgh. AZ
fairian Theorists, from Dogmas more wild and fanciful, and from
equally or more superficial Examinations, had inferred and main-
tained, as to the King’s Park mass, being a heap of Lava, ejected,
in comparatively modern times, with regard to the ages of the
Strata, from the adjacent crater of an extinct Volcano, which had
broken up through those Strata!
And [ doubt not but Mr. Forster and Mr. Wineh, and many
others of your Readers will be pleased to hear, that the appli-
cation of those simple and almost self-evident principles, on which
intelligent and practical Colliers and Miners are entirely agreed,
throughout Britain, show incontestibly, that these Basaltic Strata,
whose edges in Arthur’s Seat Hill in the King’s Park (close on the
east side of Edinburgh) are now seen standing, locally, so much
higher than elsewhere in the immediate vicinity, are the very same
Strata, which form the south-eastern slope and highest parts, of
the Pentland Range of Hills; and that these same Basaltic strata,
regularly under-lie the great Coal Trough, situated to the south-
east, east and north-east, presenting their edges all round, from
underneath the same, not only in Edinburghshire, but across
the Firth of Forth into Fifeshire: the principal Trough, making
a turn therein, first NW then W, and then SW, through Clack-
mananshire, and again across. the Forth, into. Linlithgow and
Stirling Counties, and thence towards Glasgow; which latter
Coal-fields, heretofore thought by many Persons, to be separate
and distinct ones ; now, not only appear to join, by twice cross~
ing the Forth, but the same Basaltic strata, everywhere appear
rising from under the edges, of this complicated system of very
crooked and branching Troughs* in the strata, in which these
Coal-fields lie ; which principal Trough, sends off other branch
scriptions were taken; in order, to examine minutely into, and either ac-
quiesce in, or confute and correct, the representations, therein made, by
Mr. F.: or, whether the long-promised, and now, as it is said, the forth-
coming, “ lllustrations” of Mr. Playfair, and “Geognosy” of Mr, Jameson,
will, in silence pass over these recent Observations; which seem, so strongly
to contradict each of the Theories, which, almost every very modern Writer,
has, untruly, and very improperly, said to be those, in favour of one of
which, every Geologist is now agreed! !. By which unworthy artifice, so
often and unblushingly played off, of late, the task of defending, each their
own set of whimsical Doginas, against the facts of Nature, and the published
Observations of several Writers, is lessened, into that of confuting, another
and equally or nearly as absurd a set of Dogmas, which has thus, by them-
selves, mutually, been covjured up into importance, for the mere purpose
of obtaining an easy victory over it! each,—in the opinions of their own
partizans.
_* The term Basin, from its almost invariable application to something
circular, or near to it, is very inapplicable to these local fields of particular
Strata, and should cease to be used by Geologists, who aim at perspicuity
and accuracy.
Troughs,
48 Geological Queries regarding the Basaltic and other
Troughs, through Haddingtonshire to the Coast south-east of
Dunbar, and another through Fifeshire, to the Coast SE of St.
Andrews.
{t is perhaps not less important, that I should mention to Mr.
Forster, regarding the other comparison which Mr. Winch has
truly made, in the page already quoted, between the ‘ Great
Whin Sill” of Durham and Northumberland, and “*the Toad-
stone of Derbyshire ;” viz. that the facts ascertained thereon, in
1807 to 1811, by Mr. Farey, and confirmed by subsequent and
more minute observations, made by Mr. Elias Hall, as is stated in
vol.i. of Mr. F’s Derbyshire Report, and in pages 113 to 115 of
your xliid volume ; these show, that instead of mere local ‘“‘wedge-
shaped beds of Basalt or Lava,” as the late Mr. Whitehurst (de-
tuded by the fanciful Plutonic Theory, which he was seeking to
support) has in some parts of his ‘* Inquiry”’ stated, to exist, un-
derground, in the Peak Hundreds of Derbyshire, towhich represen-
tation Mr. Winch seems here alluding ; that on the contrary, the
Ist or upper Toadsione or Basaltic Rock, to which this “ great
whin sill”’ seems undoubtedly referable, I think, is a perfectly con-
tinuous stratum, (although, in places, it is very unequally thick,
as well as variable in substance) under-lieing the adjacent Coal-
field, with the intervention of numerous beds of Limestone (of
the Ist Rock, separated by numerous partings and wayboards of
Clay), as is also the case (but with considerable variations in
thicknesses, &c.) completely round, within the Basaltic border of
the Lothian, Fife, Stirling, and Lanark, &c. Coal-fields, in the
very extensive and complicated Trough in the Strata, above-
mentioned: as my Edinburgh Correspondent, alluded to in a
former Note, has mentioned, from information he had derived,
from Mr. Farey’s recent researches and statements.
The concluding part of my 2d Query, in page 124 of the last
volume, has in part been answered already by Mr. Forster, in
p. 41 of his “ Treatise,” by his saying, that the “‘ Great whin
Sill,’ appears at Caldron-snout water-fall, on the Tees River :
I shall however, be greatly obliged, by his stating-in your work, if
hecan, all the requested particulars, regarding its dips there,&c. ? ;
and also, that he will mention, all those particulars, as to the
Strata above or below it, &c. which are visible in the upper part
of the Tees valley, from whence he so confidently drew his con-
clusion, years ago, that this Basaltic mass in Teesdale, is part of
the.same stratum, which appears at Dufton-fell ?.
I am sorry Mr. W. F. appears formerly to have paid such slight
attention to the fossil Shedés, in the Ironstone balls, in the Shales,
and in the Limestone, &c. interlaying the Coal-seams; because,
I can assure him, that these Shells, may be made the. most im-
: portant
Strata, Shells, 8c. of Durham, Northumberland, &c. 49
portant helps towards identifying the Sirata, where their actual
continuity, or sufficient of the series of Strata being visible, are
wanting, for so indicating identities; even, by those Observers,
who, however well and usefully, they may-know Shells, by their
appearances, when carefully compared with each other, yet possess
no technical or conchological knowledge, for enabling such per-'
sons, to name or describe Shells, in Language or in Drawings,
which would be definite, or satisfactory, to general Naturalists,
as was the case with Mr. Wm. Smith, the Mineral Surveyor,
during many of the first years he was employed, in collecting and
arranging, many hundred Shells, and other species of Organic
Remains, each Specimen properly referred, to its local seat and
stratum ; which Specimens, now, that they are lodged in the
British Museum, for the free use of the Public, others can, with
the greatest facility and satisfaction, depict, name and describe,
with all due technical accuracy.
I have mentioned thus much, in hopes of inducing Mr. Forster
in future, to imitate Mr. Smith herein, as far as his opportunities
of seeing fossil Shells may extend; and, in order to refer him to
a Paper on this subject, which you did me the favour to insert
at p. 274 of your xlvth volume: and particularly, to request his
answers to my 3d head of Queries, already referred to.
_ It has given me pleasure, and I doubt not will do so to many
_of your Readers, to see, that Mr. Forster is able, so importantly
.to vindicate the character, for accuracy, of the Section of the
Straia, which he published in the year 1809, as already men-
tioned, as to assert, that all the latter and lower parts of the
‘same, were entirely made from his own observations and admea-~
surements, at several mining fields, and bassets of the strata: and
I beg to remark, that Mr. F. would confer a further and lasting
obligation, if he would send for insertion in your Magazine, an
account of the steps which he took, whether by comparing the
overlapping or repetition of his Strata, measured in different
Mines, Works, or Places, or otherwise, for avoiding errors, in
joining these detached olservations together ?: a point on which,
{ think I remember having read the expression of some doubts,
particularly as to the junction of the Lead-Series and the Coal-
series, in some former volume of your Work, but which at pre-
sent I am unable, more particularly to quote.
Mr. Winch, Mr. Fryer, Mr. Buckland, &c. to whom my
Queries referred to, were in the first instance more particularly
addressed, will I hope and trust, excuse the reference adso, of the
same queries to Mr, Forster, so expressly as has now been done ;
and that the same, may not lessen the chances we had, of any
answers thereon, from all or any of these Gentlemen, to whom—
Vol. 50. No,231, July 1817. D Mr,
50 Report of the Select Commitiee
Mr. Winch in particular, Geologists are already so deeply it~
debted, and from whom, still, so much is expected by manyg in
particular by, Sir,
Your humble servant,
July 12, 1817. A Constant READER.
VIII. Report of the Select Committee appointed to consider of
the Means of preventing the Mischief of Explosion from hap-
pening on board Steam-Boats, to the Danger or Destruction
of His Majesty’s Subjects on board such Boats.
Yous Committee entered on the task assigned them, with a
‘strong feeling of the inexpediency of legislative interference with
‘the management of private concerns or property, further than
the public safety should demand, and more especially with the
exertions of that mechanical skill and ingenuity, in which the
artists of this country are so pre-eminent, by which the labour
of man has been greatly abridged, the manufactures of the coun-
try carried to an unrivalled perfection, and its commerce ex-
tended over the whole world.
_ Among these, it is impossible for a moment to overlook the
‘introduction of steam as a most powerful agent, of almost uni-
versal application, and of such utility, that but for its assistance
a very large portion of the workmen employed in an extensive
mineral district of this kingdom would be deprived of their sub-
sistence. .
A reference to the evidence taken before your Committee, will
also show with what advantage this power has lately been ap-
plied, in Great Britain, to propel vessels both of burthen and
passage, how much more extensively it has been used in America,
and of what further application it is certainly capable, if it may
not be said to be even now anticipated in prospect.
Such considerations have rendered your Committee still more
averse than when they entered on the inquiry, to propose to the
House the adoption of any legislative measure, by which the
science and ingenuity of our artists might even appear to be fet-
tered or discouraged.
But they apprehend that a consideration of what is due to
public safety has on several occasions established the principle,
that where that safety may be endangered by ignorance, avarice
or inattention, against which individuals are unable, either from
the want of knowledge, or of the power, to protect themselves, it
becomes the duty of Parliament to interpose.
In illustration of this principle, many instances might be given;
the
on Steam-Boats. 51
the enactments respecting party-walls in building, the qualifica~
tion of physicians, pilots, &c. the regulations respecting stage-
coaches, &c. seem all to be grounded upon it. And your Com-
mittee are of opinion, that its operation may, with at least equal
propriety, be extended to the present case, on account of the
disastrous consequences likely to ensue from the explosion of the
boiler of a steam-engine in a passage-vessel, and that the causes
by which such accidents have generally been produced, have
neither been discoverable by the skill nor controllable by the
power of the passengers, even where they have been open to ob-
servation.
Your Committee find it to be the universal opinion of all per-
sons conversant in such subjects, that steam-engines of some
construction may be applied with perfect security, even to pas-
sage-vessels; and they generally agree, though with some ex-
ceptions, that those called High Pressure Engines may be safely
used with the precaution of well constructed boilers, and pro-
perly adapted safety-valves; and further, a great majority of
opinions lean to boilers of wrought iron or metal, in_ preference
to cast iron,
Your Committee therefore, in consequence, have come to the
following Resolutions ; which they propose to the consideration
of the House:
1. Resolved, That it appears to this Committee, from the
evidence of several experienced engineers, examined before them,
that the explosion in the steam- packet at Norwich, was caused
not only by the improper construction and materials of the boiler,
but the safety-valve connected. with it having been overloaded 5
by which the expansive force of the steam was raised to a degree of
pressure, beyond that which the boiler was calculated to sustain.
~ 9. Resolved, That it appears to this Committee, that in the
instances of similar explosions, in steam-packets, manufactories,
and other works where steam-engines were employed, these ac-
cidents were attributable to one or other of the causes above al-
luded to.
3. Resolved, That it is the opinion of this Committee, that,
for the prevention of such accidents in future, the means are
simple and easy, and not likely to be attended with any incon-
venictices to the proprietors of steam-packets, nor with ‘any such
additional expense as can either be injurious to the owners, or
tend to prevent the increase of such establishments. The means
which your Committee would recommend are comprised in the
following regulations:
That all steam-packets carrying passengers for hire, should
be registered at the port nearest to the place from or to
-which they proceed:
: D2 That
52 Report of the Select Committee
That all boilers belonging to the engines by which such ves-
sels shall be worked, should he composed of wrought iron
or copper:
That every boiler on board such steam-packet should, previous
to the packet being used for the conveyance of passengers,
be submitted to the inspection of a skilful engineer, or other
person conversant with the subject, who should ascertain,
by trial, the strength of such boiler, and should certify his
Opinion of its sufficient strength, and of the security with
which it might be employed to the extent proposed:
That every such boiler should be provided with two sufficient
safety-valves, one of which should be inaccessible to the en-
gine=man, and the other accessible both to him and to the
persons on board the packet:
That the inspector shall examine such safety-valves, and shall
certify what is the pressure at which such safety-valves shall
open, which pressure shall not exceed one-third of that by
which the boiler has been proved, nor one-sixth of that
which by calculation it shall be reckoned able to sustain.
That a penalty should be inflicted on any person placing ad-
ditional weight on either of the safety-valves.
4. Resolved, That the Chairman be directed to move the
House, that leave be given to bring in a bill for enforcing such
regulations as may be necessary for the better management of
steam-packets, and for the security of His Majesty’s subjects
who may be passengers therein.
June 24, 1817.
Mr. Doxxin’s Evidence.
[Mr. Donkin’s description of the construction of the boiler of
the Norwich steam-boat was similar to that given in our for-
mer Numbers; we therefore omit it.] ;
Is it your opinion, that any boiler so constructed was unsafe?
—As a high pressure boiler, certainly.
What do you call a high pressure ?—J should call from thirty
pounds upwards high pressure ; the technical phrase is applied to
engines where the motive force is given by the expansive force
of the steam.
Define what is the technical distinction between high pressure
and low pressure engines >—When water is made to boil in the
boiler, and confined 'so as the steam is not allowed to make its
escape, it continues to acquire expansive force as it receives in-
crease of heat; in the high pressure engine, the piston of the
steam cylinder is forced down by the expansive force of the
steam alone, against the resistanee of the atmosphere ; when
the piston has arrived at the bottom of the cylinder, a valve is
opened,
on Steam- Boats. 53
opened, and the steam is allowed to escape into the atmosphere,
and the operation is reversed; the piston of the cylinder is made
to ascend by the same kind of force. In the condensing engine,
or the low pressure engines, the steam having been once per-
mitted to fill the cylinder, a communication is then made be-
tween the cylinder in which the piston works and the vessel in
which the steam is condensed :—that is the distinguishing feature
of the two engines. I will describe a further difference, which
contingently arises out of the use of the two: that is, in the high
pressure engines the engineer has it at his option to use what
degree of expansive force he pleases, to convert an engine
adapted for the power of five horses, or producing the power of
five horses, to that of ten horses, or to any other extent which
he may think his materials capable of sustaining. In the low
pressure or condensing engines, the steam can never be advan-
tangeously employed above from two and a half to six pounds
upon a square inch,
Whatever power there is in what you call a high pressure en-
gine, the pressure in that engine may increase the power beyond
what it is calculated for, and by means of that may render it
danger ous ?—Certainly.
Is it your opinion, that a boiler could be made of proper ma-
terials, with safety-valves, and under proper guard and direction,
to make that high pressure perfectly safe?—-That would depend
upon the quantity of pressure to be used ; a safety-valve might
be carried to three hundred, or to any assignable force. I think
that a high pressure engine may be made safe to a certain ex-
tent, but where they are left ad libitum they never can be per-
fectly safe.
Do you mean to convey the idea, that it is impossible or diffi-
cult to adapt to a high pressure engine one or two safety-valves
joined with a mercurial gauge, acting at the same point of pres-
sure, so as to make it equally safe with that upon any other con-
struction ?—In answer to the first part of the question, relative
to the safety-valve, I think I have answered that already; that
we can apply a safety-valve to any degree of pressure without
any difficulty, but that the safety of the engine does not tptally
depend upon the safety-valve.
State upon what other circumstances the safety of the engine
depends ?—My idea of the difficulty of obtaining a proper de-
gree of strength at all times in the materials of which boilers
may be made, arises from the constant deterioration which those
boilers must be suffering from the action of the fire, and from
the various degrees of expansion and contraction operating on
different parts of the-boiler,
Is it then your opinion, that in high pressure engines carried
D: to
54 Report of the Select Committee
to that extent you mention, that danger would always operate?
—It would not always operate, but it would be extremely liable
to accidents.
In fact, you yourself would not chuck to use a high pressure
engine, from the difficulty which exists, either more or less ?—
That is my opinion,
Have you made any calculation what would be the force re-
quired to be used to propel a boat in navigable rivers or canals ?
—This does not admit of a definitive answer. It depends en-
tirely upon opinion, how far one ferce would be dangerous and
another nct ; but if steam-engines are employed for the purpose
of propelling boats, that may be effected with perfect safety by
the low pressure or condensing engines, where the pressure need
not exceed six pounds to the inch.
Of course that must depend upon the resistance to be made,
and the velocity required for the boat?—Then | must make
choice of a more or less powerful engine ; I think it just to state
to the Committee, that there is'an advantage to be derived from
the use of high pressure engines on board boats, which are ne-
cessarily loaded differently at different times; this different load-
ing requires a different power in the steam-engine, and the high
pressure engine is capable of having this additional power given
to it without any difficulty, whereas in the low pressure engines
they are confined to the force first assigned to them.
What is the maximum of the low pressure engines ?—I scarcely
ever saw them beyond six pounds.
In high pressure engines there is a great saving of fuel ?—
There is in one, a peculiar kind of those called high pressure
engines ; ; there is a considerable saving of, fuel in Woolf’s
engines; but in the common ones, I believe there is but little
saving.
If therefore the engines were to be used where the saving of
fuel would be of considerable consequence, high pressure engines
of a certain construction would be better adapted for that pur-
pose than low pressure engines ?—Where tlie saving was of much
consequence,
If engines were to be used at sea, it would be of considerable
consequence, the engine and the fuel being contained in a smaller
compass ?—Woolf’s engine is not in a much smaller compass.
When you talk of the deterioration of the boiler, how long
would a boiler, properly constructed and constantly used, be used
with safety ?—That is extremely uncertain ; I have known one
boiler worn out in six months, and another used for seven or
fourteen years; the strength of cast-iron boilers is extremely
uncertain; cast iron contracts in various degrees in different
places, and therefore is liable to break,
You
on Steam-Boatis. 55.
4
You think that all cast-iron boilers are dangerous ?—Certainly,
when used for steam of high expansive force.
In your former answer, where you spoke of the extreme diffi-
culty of so regulating high pressure engines as to insure their
safety, did you mean to speak of those which had cast-iron
boilers, or of both cast and wrought metal ones ?—Chiefly as to
the cast iron; it is more practicable to make a boiler of the mal-
leable metals to resist a high pressure, as far as the tenacity of
the metals is concerned; but another difficulty occurs, which
prevents the application of the malleable metals to boilers for
high pressure engines, which is that of rendering the joining of
the plates secure.
Do you mean then to say, that wrought-iron boilers are not
in frequent use to high pressure engines, in point of fact ?—I
believe they are in much less frequent use than the cast-iron
boilers; and in Woolf’s engine they are scarcely used at all.
Is not the cast-iron boiler much cheaper than the wrought ?—
1 can scarcely tell that; I should think the cast iron would be
cheaper, if made of equal strength.
In ease of the explosion of a cast- or a wrought-iron boiler,
which is attended with the greatest danger ?—Cast iron, un-
questionably.
Why ?—From the frangible nature of the metal.
What do you apprehend to be the common effect, in case of
the explosion of a cast-iron boiler?—The metal is broken into
fragments, and driven off with great violence.in various direc-
tions.
What is the effect when a wrought-iron boiler gives way ?—
Generally a rent; but I have seen one instance of a wrought-
iron boiler, where the whole of the upper part was rent from the
bottom, driven, through the house in which it was placed, and
carried to a considerable distance; I believe several yards.
Do you apprehend, that speaking generally, and unless by
some extraordinary circumstance, such as the wilful shutting of
the steam-valve, there would be any reason to apprehend such
an effect as you have just now mentioned, to arise from the rent-
ing of a wrought-iron boiler ?--- No, I searcely think it possible.
Supposing the boiler to be made of wrought iron, or coppér
riveted, and safety-valves properly adjusted, with a mercurial
gauge also adapted in its diameter with due regard to the size
of the boiler, do you conceive that any reasonable apprehension
could arise respecting the safety of a high pressure engine ?—I
think there might; but with Jess apprehension as to the extent
of the destructive effect to be produced.
You speak of less apprehension as to the destructive’ effect ;
have the goodness to explain that ?—On account that in ‘the
D4’ malleable
56 _ Report of the Select Committee
malleable metals a simple rending generally takes place, it would
seldom happen that the upper part of the boiler would be torn
off; but iu the cast iron the fragments would be scattered about,
and be more destructive,
Do you not know, that wrought-iron boilers have been used
to all sorts of steam-engines for a considerable time past ?—Yes.
Did you ever hear of any other than the single instance that
you have mentioned, in which a wrought-iron boiler burst in such
a manner ?—No.,
Do you know what was the occasion of the top being blown
off in the instance you mentioned ?—We cannot tell what was
the immediate reason, but I suspected it to arise from the shape
of the boiler.
What was that shape ? —The bottom was of the usual waggon-
shape boiler, convex inwards; the concave part of the boiler was
over the fire, and those who examined it with myself imagined
that the engine-keeper had suffered the water to he expended,
or the whole of it nearly evaporated, leaving a small portion of
it in the lag of the boiler.
The boilers invented by Mr, Simms and Mr. Woolf were a'l
of them cast iron ?—TI believe they were; i never knew Le
make any other.
Mr. Woolf’s boiler has been in use nearly ten years >—T ihe
lieve it has.
Did you ever hear of anv accident happening to their boiler?
— Yes, I have; I heard it stated the other day, by a brother-in-
law of mine, Mr. Hall of Dartford, that he had known two or
three accidents, but without any fatal or injurious effects.
How many engines of the high pressure character have been
blown up?—I have heard of several. }
Are there more than four ?—A great many more, if there are
taken into the account those which have exploded in America as
well as here.
Do you consider low pressure boilers are safe from explosion
in all instances ?-—Used with no further pressure than six pounds,
What renders them safe?—Because they never employ steam
of high expansive force in them.
What are the means by which they are prevented from using
steam of high expansive force in them ?—Because it would be
against the interest of the persons using them to employ it.
Is there any other guard against the condensing engine re-
ceiving such a charge of expansive steam as will burst it, than
the care of the engineer or the interest of the owner ?—Certainly
none ; because I have known instances where they have used in
the same engine both steam of a high expansive force, and con-
densed it at the same time,
/
You
on Steam- Boats. 37
You have never heard of low pressure boilers blowing up ?—
No; I have never known of any, explosion with injurious con-
sequences ; they give way repeatedly; but do no injury.
Is there any thing in low pressure boilers which may be de-
pended upon absolutely, for preventing the steam sn an
expansive force beyond what is intended >—Well regulated salety-
valves; mercurial gauges or water gauges will at all times se-
cure it.
Do those means of limiting the expansive force in low pressure
boilers continue perfectly efficacious under all circumstances of
misconstruction and mismanagement ?—That entirely depends
upon the construction ; I have known safety-valves fail in their
action from bad construction.
Can such or similar means be applied to high pressure boilers?
Yes, certainly.
Is not the feeding of low pressure boilers usually done by a
column of water; and is not this column the great reason of their
safety?—~That is one reason, but they ought to have a safety-
valve besides.
Is it not the principal reason of their safety?—It is the most
secure one.
If the feeding column of water be taken away, is not the se-
curity left to depend upon the safety- valve? Unquestionably.
Are low pressure boilers employed in boats always or com-
monly fed by a column of water ?—I never saw an instanee of it.
If the mechanical means which are used to render the low
pressure boilers secure succeed, will not similar means render
high pressure boilers secure?—As far as the expansive force is
not permitted to arrive beyond ¢ertain limits, so far it will af-
ford security.
At what expansive force are low pressure boilers safe aeoord-
ing to their usual construction ?—I have seen very few boilers
constructed for the purpose of a low pressure engine, or a con-
densing engine that would sustain a pressure of ten pounds, with-
out occasioning considerable leakage, or without forcing the
joints.
Are they not very often used with a force to render them un-
safe?—I never knew an instance of it.
Is not the explosion of them likely to do mischief ?—Not un-
der the pressure they are capable of sustaining.
Not even if they are made of cast iron ?—Certainly.
Are they uniformly made of wrought iron?—No; several of
them are made of cast iron.
Are not the greater number of them made of cast iron ?>—No ;
J pprehend not,
You’
58 Report of the Select Committee
You cannot then state to the Committee how many instances
of explosion you know of high pressure boilers ?—-No, I cannot.
Are they more than in-low pressure boilers ?—i never heard
of an explosion in the low pressure boiler of any consequence
whatever, merely a giving way of the plates or the wearing out
of the boilers; not such a bursting as can be called an explosion,
May not every instance of explosion of the high pressure boilers
with which you are acquainted, be traced to bad construction,
er palpable mismanagement ?—I have never examined many of
them, and therefore what they may be immediately traced to I
do not know; but all the explosions I have heard of have been
occasioned by the use of steam of high expansive force; the one
I visited at Norwich certainly arose from the defective construc-
tion of the boiler: it was extremely ill constructed.
Was it not as well from the palpable mismanagement of the
engineer?—That I do not know; we were told that it was; I
have no doubt there had been very great temerity. and rashness.
Was not that high pressure boiler which blew up in London
the other day at a sugar-house, entirely owing to the most pal-
pable misconstruction ?—I saw the boiler after it had burst ; and
I certainly should not have made a boiler in that shape, to have
withstood the pressure which it was intended to bear.
Was not that boiler made of a different thickness ; one side
of it three-quarters of an inch thick, and the other, side two
inches thick ?—Those are very nearly the dimensions; but. in
addition to that, there was a defect in ‘the casting, what we call
a cold shut in the i iron.
Is not the use of high pressure steam completely in its infaney?
— Certainly, its introduction to general use is of much later date
than the low pressure steam-engines.
It is in fact to be considered as an invention of recent date?—
It is.
Have not material improvements taken place in the construc-
tion and use of high pressure boilers, in consequence of the acci-
dents which have happened ?—I conceive Woolf’s mode of con-
structing boilers to be a considerable improvement ; a very ma-
terial one I have likewise been told, though [ have never seen
one, that Trevethick has invented ; a method of making boilers
by increasing their length and decreasing their diameter, so as
to render them capable of sustaining pressure to a much greater
degree than heretofore.
Have more accidents occurred since the invention of the high
pressure boilers, than might have been expected from the inven-
tion of any new system whateyer in the mechanical construction
of engines ?—Perhaps not. j
What
on Steum-Boats.' 59
What expansive force of steam is generally employed in those
high pressure engines?—lI fancy that is very variable, from
30 pounds to 120 upon the square inch, or even perhaps higher
than that.
Instances have been known in which a boiler bas been worked
at 160 and 180; have there not ?>—TI have heard of such things,
but I never knew of them.
What is the proof to which high pressure boilers are generally
exposed previous to their being used ?—The most eligible. proof
they ought to be exposed to is by water.
To what pressure ?>—J should think double the pressure to
which they are intended afterwards to be subjected.
What is the estimated force in your opinion, which would
burst a high pressure boiler of the best construction ?——That is
very different, because it depends upon the strength and con-
struction of the materials; I never entered into the calculation, ,
Have not the greatest advantages been derived to the mines
and manufactures from the use of the high pressure boilers ?—
I believe inestimable advantages.
Have you any doubt that Cornwall has derived an advantage
which may be considered as incalculable from them ?—None in
the world.
Do you think, from the few accidents which have occurred in
the use of gies; there is any better argument to be brought
against the permitting them to be employed, than could be de-
rived from the accidents which have arisen in the explosion-of
gunpowder in the clearing passages in the mines i ib not as
applied to the mines, certainly.
You have mentioued that security is afforded to the engine by
feeding the boiler by a column of water; from what does that
security arise ?—The pressure from the steam in the boiler could
never rise to a force greater than that which would be equal to
the pressure of the column of water; whenever it did arrive at
that pressure, or beyond that pressure, the water would be blown
out and the steam would follow.
You have stated, that in the steam-vessels used upon rivers,
this precaution is not resorted to?—TI never saw one, and it
would be extremely inconvenient.
For what reason ?—On account of the undulations the water
would be subject to; it would be thrown out of the pipe from
the motion of the vessel; and other inconveniences would arise,
‘such as bringing the pipe through the deck of the vessel.
Do you apprehend that a mercurial gauge would be exposed
‘to the same inconveniences?—Certainly, I do; the altitude
would be lessened by every new assumed position of the vessel ;
that is, if a tube placed vertically at first, should by the action
of
60 Report of the Select Committee
of the vessel assume a diagonal or an oblique position,’ the alti-
tude of the column would be lessened, and its consequent pres-
sure upon the steam lessened.
Are you of opinion that there would be much difieulty in
guarding against such an inconvenience as that?—Yes, { think
there would, generally speaking; but a well constructed salety~
valve would answer all the purposes.
Are not the safety-valves applied to the low pressure engines,
even when the column of water is used to supply the boiler?—
Most frequently they are; I have seen some without.
Did you never hear of the pressure in a condensing engine
being raised by mismanagement as high as 19 or 20 pounds
per inch ?—No; I do not recollect that 1 ever met with such a
circumstance ; I have no doubt that it has taken place.
If such a circumstance may take place with a low pressure
engine, do not you think that, according to the general catcula-
tion of the strength of their boilers to resist the usual pressure
to which they are subjected, more danger would arise than in
almost any case which could happen to a high pressure engine
with a boiier properly adapted?—No, decidedly not ; according
to the general construction of low pressure boilers, they are so
riveted together to withstand the low pressure they are intended
to bear, and they always give indications of an increase of pres-
sure long before | should apprehend any danger from it; I mean
by the joints giving way, and the steam forcing a passage ‘through
them.
Do you mean to apply that to the cast-iron boilers ?—No,
certainly not; to the wrought-iron or copper boilers.
The question before put was meant to apply to a low pres-
sure engine, fitted up with a cast-iron boiler? — As applied
to the cast-iron boiler, | should say, that being constructed to
bear a less degree of expansive force, an explosion would sooner
take place, and therefore would be less dangerous.
Less dangerous in comparison with what ?—With a high pres-
sure boiler.
Do you mean to say, that an explosion of the cast-iron boiler
of a low pressure engine which should be burst by an improper
degree of pressure, would be less dangerous than the rending of
a wrought-iron boiler, occasioned by a much higher degree of
pressure?—I gave my answer as connected with the former
question, with regard to the liability to danger from low pressure
boilers; I take for granted, that if a boiler is constructed to be
applied to a low pressure engine, that a commensurate strength
will be applied to the materials of the boiler, and that in the
case of applying a boiler to a high pressure engine, an adequate
strength must be used there to the pressure intended ; therefore,
if
on Steam-Boats, §1
if the low pressure boiler by any accident should be exploded,
generally speaking, boilers made of the malleable metals must be
much safer on an explosion taking place, at. least they are not
calculated -to do so much mischief as the cast-iron boilers.
Have you made any experiments, or are you acquainted ac-
curately with the effect of such as have been made upon the dif-
ferent quantities of fuel consumed in the high and the low pressure
engines, in proportion to the quantity of power produced ?—I
have witnessed several experiments on Woolf’s engines, where
the object was to ascertain the comparative expenditure of coals
or fuel in grinding corn between his engines and the low pressure
or condensing engines, and. the results were decidedly in favour
of Mr. Woolf’s engines.
You cannot speak as to the high pressure engines commonly
in use ?—I apprehend there is no saving of fuel, or very little ;
there may be a little.
What was the saving of fuel by Woolf’s engine, as compared
with the other?— The average effect in one case was the grinding
eighteen bushels of wheat with one bushel of coals; the other
average effect of Bolton and Watt’s engine, or the low pressure
engines, is the grinding of from ten to twelve bushels of wheat
with a bushel of coals,
Do you know whether the power of the engines in lifting water,
may fairly be reckoned at the same proportionable difference ?—
Yes; I believe they may. [do not speak from experiments;
but [ have no doubt as to the effect ; by the reports from Corn-
wall, I am led to suppose it may be much greater.
Have you seen any account of the-explosion of the steam-
engine on board a boat in America, within a few weeks past ?>—
No; {have not. I understand there has been one.
From any information you received at Norwich, did you hear
of any conduct of the manager of that boat, which occasioned
the explosion of the boiler?—-No; the information I did re-
ceive upon that subject, was since we returned to London.
Mr. Tuomas Lean’s Svidence.
Will you state your profession, and place of abode ?—I reside
at Crowan in Cornwall, and I am employed by nearly the whale
of the miners in Cornwall to inspect their engines, and make
anouthly reports of the work they perform.
You are then well acquainted with steam-engines of every va-
rions construction ?—Certainly I am; I see fifty-seven every
month.
Do you conceive that there is any material difference in the
respective safety of those engines?—Some of the engines are
«certainly safer than others, B
e
62 Report of the Select Committee
.Be'so good as to state which, and why?—I conceive there is
no danger whatever in the use of high pressure steam-engines ; ;
and for this reason, that in general, for an engine that is in-
tended to be worked with high steam, the materials are made
stronger in proportion than the materials used for steam of low
pressure.
What are the precautions which you think it necessary to take,
in order to render a high steam-engine perfectly safe from acci-
dent >—The materials should be made strong enough, and there
isno difficulty in doing that; and there is a good deal depend-
ing on the construction of the safety-valve, which should be so
constructed as to go quite easy and without any possibility of
sticking.
Do you not think it of importance, if not necessary, that a
boiler should have two safety-valves ?—Certainly; and every high
pressure steam-engine that I attend to has two safety- valves.
Do not you confine one of those from the engine-man ?—Not
in any instance.
Should you or not think it necessary, on board a boat for pas-
sengers worked by a steam-engine, that there should be an ad-
ditional safety-valve to the boilers which the engine-man could
not come at to prevent its operation ?—That would certainly be
very desirable, and I should think necessary.
Have you any choice, in peint of safety only, between a boiler
constructed of cast iron or of wrought iron?—Were J to have a
boiler where I wished to have.the greatest strength, I would cer-
tainly have it made of cast iron; I have not one doubt that a
cast-iron boiler can be made much stronger than it is possible
to make a wrought iron one; in fact, the explosions that we
have had in.Cornwall have all been in wrought-iron boilers, but
}-never had one in cast-iron boilers,. nor have we had an acci-
dent from high pressure steam ; ail the accidents have been from
Jow pressure steam in Cornwall.
Ta what do you attribute that?—I attribute that to the
boilers not having their proportionate strength to the weight
they ought to bear, that the high pressure steam-engines have.
Of what nature are those failures which usually happen in the
«wrought iron boilers ?—The one which I witnessed the explosion
of, thnieww off the man-hole door.
Do you mean that the bolts by which the man-hole door was
secured, gave way?—Yes.
~ Are:there not man-holes to cast-iron boilers >—There are,
Then might not the best constructed and the strongest cast-
‘jron boilers have been equally liable to the accident you. have
been: mentioning, from the. mere failure of the bolts, -by which
the man-hole door was secured ?-- Certainly not, and for this
reason,
on Steam-Boats. , ; 63
féason, the man-hole door to a cast-iron boiler is contrived to
be on the inside; it does not depend upon bolts at all as they
are constructed with us, it bears against the side of the boiler.
Would it not be equally easy to afix man-holes so constructed
to wrought-iron boilers?—There is no difficulty in doing it,
either one way or the other.
Supposing a cast-iron boiler and a wrought-iron boiler to be
exploded by having too great a pressure applied, from which of
the explesions should you apprehend the greatest danger ?—I
think the danger is equal from one as the other.
In what manner do you apprehend then, that a cast-iron boiler
would explode ?—Probaby there might be some parts of the
cast-iron boiler separate; and the wrought-iron boiler would
probably rend.
Should you not then apprehend a greater danger from the ex-
plosion of a boiler which burst into fragments, than from ene
which only rent ?—In every boiler that is built, there is one part
of it weaker than another, and it is hardly possible for a boiler
to be thrown about in fragments to do mischief. [ should not
fee] any hesitation to sit on the cast-iron boilers I have seen in
Cornwall when an explosion took place; I am convinced the
explosion would take place at the under part.
Do you think it necessary or advantageous that those boilers
should be proved at their first erection, and that that proof
should afterwards be repeated at intervals ?—It is certainly de~
sirable it should be done at the first erection; they ought always
to be proved; the cast-iron boilers which have come under my
notice in Cornwall, f calculate to be sufficient to resist at least
thirteen times the pressure of steam we have ever used in them.
To what heat are those boilers usually proved ?>—We work in
general forty pounds to an inch in the high pressure boilers, and
we prove them sometimes as high as three hundred,
By a proof of this nature, so much within the supposed capa-
city of resistance of a boiler, yon do not apprehend that any risk
is incurred of injuring it?—Certainly not.
And you yet conceive, that the proof is so far beyond the or-
dinary resistance which is required from the boiler, as that there
is no danger whatever of its bursting with a pressure of forty or
fifty pounds an inch, when it has been proved by a pressure of
three hundred ?—Certainly not.
‘Do you apprehend, that it is perfectly easy so to construct
and to secure your safety-valves, as that no engine-man, how-
ever careless; shall be able to raise the steam beyond the pres-
sure of forty or fifty pounds per inch ?>—There certainly is not the
least difficulty in it. He
You apprehend then, that with a boiler so constructed, so
proved,
64 Report of the Select Committee on Steam- Boats.
proved, and so guarded against carelessness, there would be no
danger whatever in any situation ?—Certainly not; neither in a
steam-boat or an engiue employed in a manufactory or mines,
or in any manner whatever.
_ As-to the ceconomy in the use of coals, what is your opinion ?
—My opinion is, that the high pressure engines in Cornwall
have saved at least two-fifths of the whole consumption of coals
in the county ; in some instances it has saved three-fifths.
What means have you of ascertaining that fact?—In the pur-
suance of my ordinary employment, I attend to the various en-
gines in Cornwall, and compute their duty; the quantity of coals
that is consumed by the engines is rendered to me on oath; it
is the same that is sworn to at the Custom-house. The ascer-
taining the weights which the engine lifts is carefully and cor-
rectly measured; and from this I calculate the work performed
by the engines, of which I make a monthly report, and find, that
those engines which work with a high pressure steam are more
ceconomical in their operations than those of the low pressure,
so much so, that were the low pressure steam engines to be in-
troduced into the mines of Cornwall, it would stop upwards of
two-thirds of them.
Is the paper which you have, one of those accounts ?—It is
the account for the last month.
[It was delivered in, and read ;— Extracts from these Reports
are given regularly in the Phil. Mag.)
And this account you declare, upon your own knowledge, to
be accurate as to the particulars it contains ?-—I do.
Do you consider it as important to the safety of an engine,
that the boiler should be frequently cleansed ?—If a boiler is
foul, if there is a quantity of mud in it, it may prevent the water
from coming in contact with the iron, and in that case the boiler
is liable to injury; [ have known a wrought-iron boiler to burst
from that very cause; I never knew a cast-iron boiler to explode
in any instance.
Is there any difficulty in subjecting the boiler to the usual proof,
every time it is cleansed ?—There is no difficulty whatever, any
other than having the apparatus prepared for it, which is very
easily done.
Is that apparatus either expensive, or difficult of construction,
or of application ?—No.
Can it be applied with ease by any enginle-man or engine pro-
prietor, who is at a!l acquainted with the construction or working
of a steamn-engine ?—Yes; and the management of it is so plain
that no person can misunderstand it, if they are unacquainted
with all*the other parts of the engine.
In what does this proof consist, and how is it performed —
he
a hd
Notices respecting New Books. 65
The proof consists of first filling the boiler with water, and then
Joading the safety-valve to any point required; then injecting
water by a forcing pump, till the safety-valve, with the additional
weight upon it, is raised. ,
Have you any other suggestions to make on the subject of the
safety of steam-engines, besides what you have already said ?—
I think not. :
IX. Notices respecting New Books.
An Inquiry into the progressive Colonization of the Earth, and
the Origin of Nations ; illustrated ly a Map of the Geo-
graphy of Ecclesiastical and Ancient Civil History. By
'T. Hemine, of Magdalen Hall, Oxon.
W: have read this work with attention, and examined the
large map, with which it is accompanied, with some degree of
care. The whole exhibits much patient, and, when the nature
of the inquiry is considered, we may add successful investigation.
The title of the work expresses sufficiently its object. How-
ever serviceable detached ‘‘scraps of chorography,” embodied
under the name of “ an atlas,’’ may be to those who have al-
ready attained proficiency in the scieuce, there is great incon-
venience in being obliged, while reading, to turn from one de-
tached survey to another, and so to combine them as to obtain
satisfaction. To obviate this, “and to facilitate by the most
approved mode the acquirement of correct ideas, regarding the
circulation of human societies through the remotest periods, it
was designed to compass, in a general map, the whole scope of
territory connected with the sacred, civil, and profane writings
of antiquity, on such a competent scale as appeared sufficient
for every requisite illustration, from the first colonial migrations
of maukind, to the rise of the present nations of the earth, and ©
still to confine the same within such a dimension, as might ren-
der it convenient for the most ordinary and general application
and reference.”
But the author had first to settle his point of departure—the
second cradle of the human race. For this purpose the tradi-
tions, for they deserve not the name of records, of the Egyptians,
the Assyrians, the Chinese, the Pheenicians, the Scythians, the
Indians, the Persians, and Arabians; and the writings of Ho-
mer, Hesiod, Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, Hecateus, Berosus,
Abydenus, Alexander Polyhistor, Demetrius, Diodorus Siculus,&e.
are examined, and compared with the writings of the Jewish
law-giver. This subject occupies the author’s first chapter, which °
he concludes with the following deductions:
Vol. 50. No, 231. July 1817. po “ First—
66 Notices respecting New Books.
“¢ First—That there is not to he found, in all the rival monti-
ments of antiquity, any authority equiv alent to, or that can in
the least degree invalidate, the memorial of Moses: ’
*¢ Secondly—That his writings are of so pre-eminent and ex-
traordinary a quality, that the greatest efforts of human subtlety
and art seem to have been often ineiiectually exerted to counter-
feit and nullify them.
“ Thirdly—That the niost profound sages—the most eon-
ceited theorists—the mest celebrated historians+—-the most ro-
mantic poets and discursive geniuses of every pagan age and
country seem to have resorted to his pages for information, and
to have borrowed thence their only true notions regarding the
primitive affairs of the earth; and that what they have feigned
to deny as infidels, theorists, and enthusiasts, they have involun-
tarily admired and espoused as historians, critics, and philoso-
phers.
*¢ Fourthly—That the Pentateuch seems ever to have been
the only source of faithful intelligence respecting the formation
of the earth, and the rise of human society; and which its most
illiberal and malevolent adversaries directly or indirectly authen-
ticate.
** And lastly—That being, as it appears to be, unanimously
attested by the whole world as the paramount evidence of the
renovation of mankind after the flood, and of the first dispersion
into colonies, it establishes for us those facts which no other volume
in the world contains, and from which the history of the present
population and political cantonments of the earth must neces-
sarily be derived.”
This leads the author to another inquiry. The testimony of
Moses being found more consistent and satisfactory than any
documents that have been compared with it; how come the
moderns so far to disregard his anthority 2s to place Ararat,
where the ark rested, in Armenia, almost due north of Shinay ?
Moses . says expressly, that the builders of Babel ‘‘ journeyed
from the east.’ Where then should the Ararat of Moses be
sought for? To this inquiry the author devotes the whole of
his second chapter, which we shall quote enitire.
“* Inquiry concerning the Place of the Mountains of Ararat.
‘« ‘And the ark rested in the seventh month, on the seventeenth
day of the month, upon the mountains of Ararat.’ Gen. viii. 4.
** ¢ And it came to pass, as they journeyed from the east, that
they found a plain in the land of Shinar, and they dwelt there.”
“ But before we proceed to the peak of Ararat, or the sum-
mit of Babel, to mark therefrom the overspreading of the earth
by the posterity of Noah, we must endeavour to decide the geo-
graphical
Me ts “
Notices respecting New Books. 67
graphical position ef the former. With respect to, the latter, it
is required to be understood that it is the point uniformly alluded
to when speaking of the plains of Shinar in the future parts of
this inquiry.
** With regard to the situation of Ararat, even many of the
pious fathers seem to have paid too much attention to legendary
tradition, and too little to the pure fact: for it is certainly not
reconcileable to good faith in Moses to say, that Mount Ararat,
where the ark rested, is north, or north-bearing~west, of Shinar,
when he has so explicitly said, that the people came thither from
the east: and how learned and orthodox commentators could ‘
ever have been persuaded to adopt the mountain called Ararat,
in Armenia, as ¢ the landing place,’ is very unaccountable, as
there is nothing but ¢he name and traditionary report to au-
thorize such a conjecture; and this quite contrary to the express
words of Moses. That Ararat was eastward of Shinar, as the
- divine historian hath told us, there are many circumstances to
show; but there can be no true judgement without evidence:
therefore we will proceed to examine the authorities on both
sides of the question.
“ Epiphanius, Basil, Jerome, Eusebius, Berosus, Josephus,
Nicholas Damascenus, and more, mention reports that part of
the ark was to be seen in their times on the Gordiean mountains
which are in the south of Armenia: and the last-mentioned of
them says ‘that there is a mountain in Armenia called Baris,
which in the Coptic language signifies a ship, ‘ whither,’ as the
tradition goes, * some persons escaped in an ark, from the great
flood ; and that pieces of the wood were there seen for many
ages after,’
“ Now the positive testimony of either of these men would
have been weighty; but the xeports which they have listened to
are nothing more than fume.
“¢ Elmasinus says, ‘he went up Mount Gordus and viewed
the place where the ark rested,’ but does not say he saw the
ark there,
** There are other similar accounts in Bochart, Josephus,
Wells, &c. but they are all equally superficial and unsatisfactory.
“ Herbert says, ‘that the highest mquntain in Armenia is
called Baris ;’ which he imagines is also called Damoan—‘ that
it is between Armenia and Media—that he and his company rode
up to the top, whence they had a prospect of the Caspian Sea,
though 160 miles off—that there are numbers of Jews about the
village of Damoan at the foot of the mountain, who say they
are the offspring of those transported thither by Salmonassar,
2 Kings xvii. 6—that they have never changed their seats, and
that they have a constant tradition that the ark rested upon the
2 mountain,’
68° Notices respecting New Books.
mountain.’ Herbert is here speaking as though he thought
these Jews really knew something about the sve f wheu they
must be as ignorant on the subject as the people of Del Fuego:
for whether they belonged to the race of Jews carried off by Sal-
monassar, or not, it is just the same, as it was 1600 years after
the flood that the Assyrian king transported lis captives; so
that, even of traditions, none could be nore flimsvy—how should
strangers who knew nothing of the country for 1600 years after
the event get hold of their tradition?
Sir Jobn Chardin informs us that Ararat lies twelve leagues
east of Erivan. He considers it the same as the Gordizan
Mountains. ‘The Armenians,’ says this traveller, ‘ have a
tradition that the ark is s¢‘J/ on the top of it—the niountain is
totally destitute of inhabitants, and perpetually covered half-way
from the top with snow.’
“ Strnys, another traveller thither, is more minute in his ac-
count of Ararat. After a description of the stone and minerals
of the reck, he tells us, ‘ that he went up the mountain to cure
@ hermit who was secluded there, of a rupture—that it is sur-
rounded by several rows of clouds, the first of which is dark and
thick ; the next extremely cold, and full of snow; and the third
so int tensely cold that he was ‘scarcely able to endure it—that
above this uppermost stratum, and where the hermit’s cell was,
the air was quite mild and .temperate—and the recluse declared
to him, that ‘he had neither felt a breeze of wind nor a drop
of rain for twenty-five years, which was the time he had lived
upon the rock’—that he further told him, ‘that the air on the
top was much more cali than where he resided—that it was
not subject to change—and that, therefore, the ark continued
undecayed’ — that he obtained from ‘the hermit a piece of wood
of a brownish-red colour; anda piece of the rock on which he
alleged ‘that the ark rested ;’ in attestation of which he gave
Struys a certificate to the following effect:
“© Certificate.—I with mine own hand cut. off from the ark
the piece of wood made in the form of a cross; and broke off
from the rock, on which the ark rested, that same. piece of
stoue.’ (Signed) § Domryicus ALEXANDER RoMANUs..
‘Dated Mount Ararat, July 22, 1670.’
*¢Struys also informs us, ‘ that he was seven days travelling
from Erivan to this mountain;’ and ¢ that it is an entire rock
without earth, trees, or verdure upon it.’ He has given usa
map of the Caspian Sea, from which it appears that Ararat is
towards the western coast of that sea, north of the river Kir, and
somewhere about the southern extremity of Caucasus ; being
about 300 miles east-bearing-northward from Erivan.
* Thevenot, and other travellers, bring us also reports; but
vary
7
:
- Notices respecting New Books. 69
vary in the position of this mountain; so that, if any one of
them is right, all the others are wrong: and every thing we are
able to gain from these authors is, in the end, what Moses has
briefly inforued us; namely—that Ararat was the resting-place
of the ark.
“* What in the world could have possessed Mr. Struys? Surely
it was very tame of such an enterprising traveller to turn back—
after having surmounted the regions of clouds, and finding him-
self in’ such a serene climate, not to have visited the stupendous
hulk ! especially as he had such good surety of its being there,
and in such excellent repair—not to have explored every corner
of that mighty carrack, moored su high, which had once con-
tained snch an inestimable cargo—not to have followed up the
grand effort, and have pacified for ever the eager solicitude which
must still hang about this interesting mystery—to come away
satisfied, after climbing so high, with that bit of splinter—and,
that piece of stone!
- € Wells has inserted Ararat in his maps almost duly north of
Babylon, and nearly sixty miles westward of Erivan; but I have
no idea upon what authorities.
** Cellarius says, that most interpreters take the Gordizan
mountains to be Ararat; and which are either a part of ‘Taurus,
or near it. In the Targum of Onkelos the mountains of Ararat
are translated the mountains of Cardu; and in the Targum of
Jonathan they are rendered the mountains of Kadrun.
» Many of the other comnientators, whose notions are con-
fined to Armenia, extend the interpretation, and say, the moun-
tains of Ararat —the Gordizan mountains --the Armenian moun-
tains—using the plural, as we find it in Genesis, without pre-
tending to fix upon any particular tor. But Moses did not speak
obscurely, nor is it to be allowed that he spoke insignificantly,
when he said ¢ they journeyed from the east:’ therefore, to be
ferreting about Armenia, for the sake of a string of contradictory
rumours, is tantamount to a dereliction of faith, and a gross ab-
surdity; because it is following rumour rather than fact: and it
is pretty certain, that rumour can never cause the sun to rise in
the north, nor the magnet to quit its old propensity. Indeed it is
almost past suppasition, that rumour should have withdrawn so
many, from a point so plain and positive, What is categorically
announced should be literally interpreted :—let us, therefore, try
the fact against the rumour.
.*€ In the first place, it is far from unlikely that Ararat is a
primitive word, which generated out of the particular circum-
stanec to which it refers; as the opinions respecting its precise
etymon and signification are as vague aud inconclusive as about
jts place, We must notice, that Moses applies it extensively,
E3 and
0 Notices respecting New Books.
and not locally, by using it in the plural, This word may have
been afterwards transferred as a name, applicable to Armenia,
without the slightest reference to the ark: for in the space of
from 700 to 900 years, which elapsed from the time of Moses to
the ages of Isaiah and Jeremiah, great changes in countries must
have taken place; and in those éarly establishments, nothing
was long durable. As to names, they were the most fickle parts
belonging to countries; for a name was easily carried from place
to place, though a territory could not; so that, analogy of name,
though found in Scripture, is no demonstration of identity; and
Isaiah and Jeremiah allude to very foreign matters, in their men-
tion of Ararat, to what Moses did. Indeed we might as well look
for Damascus in the Desert of Arabia, as for the ark in Armenia;
for the land of Uz is in the Arabian Desert, and Damascus is in
the land of Uz: but we know that Damascus is not in Arabia;.
and therefore, we reason, that these must be two distant coun-
tries named alike.
“ Now had the two great prophets spoken counter to Moses,
it would have been much more melancholy and awful; and which’
they would certainly have done, if they had said that the ark
grounded in Armenia: but, they neither wrote to conduct us to.
the ark, nor to lure us into any contrary pursuit; and we must
here endeavour to persuade ourselves, that Ararat on the north,
is not Ararat on the east, of Shinar; and that there is no con-
tradiction between Moses and the two prophets ; because, one
event preceded the other nearly 1700 years; and because, the
incidents were as foreign from one another, as they were distant
in time.
** In our endeavour, then, to arrive at the truth, we cannot
do better than retrace the geographical rhumb, which Moses has
laid down for us, from Ararat to Shinar. In our progress along
this track, from the position of the latter place, we come to that
long and elevated range of mountains which some of the ancient
writers have considered to be a continuation of Taurus and
Caucasus ; and which extend, according to Quintus Curtius, in
an eastern direction all through Asia, even to the coast of China.
From this grand ridge, several collateral branches stretch, from
different points, towards the north and towards the south, and
at the western extremity of which are the Gordizan mountains of
Armenia, part of which is supposed, by some of the authors we
have mentioned, to be the Ararat where Noah alighted after the
flood: so that, the resting-place of the ark may yet have been on
these same mountains, though not in Armenia.
‘* Procopius says, that the Macedonians called the part of these
mountains, on the eastern frontier of Persia, which had been
previously called Paropamisus, by the name of Caucasus, in com-
pliment
Notices respecting New Books. 71
pliment to the victories which their hero Alexander won in
‘those parts of the world.
*¢ From this it has been erroneously imagined that the moun-
tains of Taurus and Caucasus form a junction towards the south-
west of the Caspian Sea, and continue on to India; and hence
some have said that the ark rested on ‘Taurus, and others have
told us that it rested on Caucasus: but Caucasus commences on
the north-eastern part of the Euxine, and proceeds in a rather
south-eastern course, to the west shore of the Caspian, near to
the mouth of the river Kir, where it ceases: and the heights of
Taurus rise in the west of Asia Minor, aud afterwards strike into
two branches; one of which terminates at the river Euphrates,
and the other, running north-east, ceases at the eastern side of
the Euxine—therefore, if the declaration of Moses is to he veri-
fied, these mountains of Taurus and Caucasus have nothing to
do with Noah and the ark; and what we find to haye been
falsely called Caucasus, we must, according to the information
of Procopius, consider to be Paropamisus.
*¢ Tt has been alleged by Buno, that these mountains of Persia
are so high that the sun shines upon the tops of them during a
third part of the night.
“Tt is remarked by the Holstein ambassadors, who visited
Persia about two centuries ago under Brugman, that Curtius is
not altogether wrong in saying that these mountains extend all
through Asia; ‘because the heights of Ararat and Taurus so
nearly join them,’ say these ambassadors, ‘ that they appear to
be one concatenation of mountains.”
** Wilson’s Asiatic Researches record some traditions of the
Indians respecting the antediluvian ages; the flood; and the
preservation of the remnant of mankind. He says, * there is a
mountain in the province of Candahar, that is called Aryavart,
or Aryawart ; on which, the tradition of that country says, the
ark lodged.’
“This is a part of the ancient Aria or Ariana, (a very ex~
tensive country in the east of Persia, in the earlier ages:) and
hereabouts we find several dialects remaining, of the Targum
translations of Ararat, before mentioned, attached to different
parts of the country; as Candau, Candu, Gaur, Goura, Gor,
Gorgian, &c, Here also, besides Aria, Ariana, and Aryavart,
are Herat, or Harat, Arsarath, Yerac, Herac,&c. And we may
further remark, that in the Persian and Indian vocabulary the
termination at is very frequent ; as Amadabat, Surat, Guzerat,
Gehan-abat, Estarabat, &c.
*€ In so obscure a matter we must lay hold of every little light;
but, were there not evidences stronger than these, our attempt
would be to no purpose. When a stream becomes so clogged
E4 an
72 Notices respecting New Books.
and choked as this is, there is scarcely a possibility of delving
through all the obstacles with which the versatility of time, the
roots of prejudice and error, and the fashions and corruptions of
language have conspired to fill it: and though it may be possi~
ble to remove some of the obstructions collected about its source,
so as to get it to trickle, yet shall we never be able to come ex-
actly to the fountain-head; and it would be a useless and un-
profitable appropriation of time to attempt it, since what is im-
possible cannot be. But, very fortunately for us, it happens that
such nicety is by no means indispensable to the success of the
argument we are upon; which requires only, that we should de-
duce no judgement but what is conformable to the declaration of
Moses ; and that, subjecting ourselves to this restriction through-
out, we should endeavour to work our way, as near as the cir-
cumstances will allow, towards the truth.”
[To be continued. }
Mr. Accum has in the press, “* Chemical Amusement,” com-
p ’ 2
prising a Series of curious and instructive Experiments in Che-
mistry, which are easily performed and unattended by danger.
p be A ie aie a
Mr. Newman, Soho-Square, has just published a work en-
; > quare, J B
titled “ Chromatics; or, An Essay on the Analogy and Harmon
Z d 3 ?
of Colours.”
Speedily will be published, in one volume octavo, A Practical
Inquiry into the Causes of the frequent Failure of the Operations
of extracting and depressing the Cataract; and the Description
of a new and improved Series of Operations, by the Practice of
which most of these Causes of Failure may be avoided. IIlus-
trated by Tables of the comparative Success of the old and new
Operations. By Sir William Adams.
The first number of a new periodical work, entitled ‘ Journal
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,” has just
reached this country from America. It contains, 1. Description
of six new species of the genus Firola, from the Mediterranean, by
MM. Le Sueur and Peron; with a plate. 2. An account of the
new mountain-sheep, Ovis moniana, by Mr. George Ord; with a
wood-engraving of the horn of the animal. 3, A description of
seven American water and land Shells, by Mr. Tho. Say. The
work ends with an invitation to naturalists to make use of the
Journal as a medium of communicating science.
It is expected and hoped that Mr. Abernethy will publish his
very excellent observations on the discoveries of the late cele-
brated John Hunter in comparative and human Anatomy, de.
ee livered
Notices respecting New Books. 73
livered at the College of Surgeons during his Lectures——This
gentleman has shown that we are in reality indebted to Hunter
for many facts in natural history, &c. plagiarized by the mo-
dern writers on physiology. The publication of his Introductory
Lectures, relating to Hunter’s Theory of Life, &ec. &c. were
omitted to be mentioned in the Philosophical Magazine. They
contained a sort of summary of the physiological opinions, of
that acute and truly philosophical reasoner. _Among other things
whieh the author has’ably handled, we may reckon his remarks
on: the vital principle as some of the best,—not because any
theory of life is therein established on demonstrative evidence,
_ and placed beyond all controversy—for the obscurity of the sub-
ject renders this impossible—but because on a subject in itself
purely theoretical he has followed a course of reasoning founded
on the observance, and strictly philosophical throughout, and
which is more consistent with the common sense of the thinking
part of mankind in all ages past, as well as with popular feeling,
than any other modern theory of life, or philosophy of mind..
It is in this respect eminently contrasted to that confused farrago
of scarcely intelligible words in which some modern writers have
attempted, in humble imitation of the French school of philoso-
phy, to convey and establish the gloomy and misanthropic doc-
trine of materialism, and thus confound the distinction of au-
tomatic and animal life—opinions which, however prevalent they
may still be among the unreflecting people of France, are daily
losing ground in Germany, Scotland, and our own country, and
are giving place to a more rational philosophy. :
A work is in contemplation, and it will probably be shortly
laid before the public, entitled “ History of the Helvetian, Au-+
strian, Apennine, Pyrenean, and Northern Floras,” considered
with respect to the points of origin from which the different
families of plants have travelled to the valleys and plains, and
become mixed together ;. illustrated by a Botanical Map of the
yegions assigned to each, :
X. Intelligence and Miscelluneous Articles.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sm, — I write chiefly with a view to correct the latter para-
graph of the description of “ Steele’s Nooth’s apparatus,” which
should stand thus: ‘* The impregnation is very soon effected, as
the pressure is great ; and as the parts are fitted by accurate
grinding, much trouble and inconvenience are saved, from the
usual method of luting being avoided.”
{ 1 think
,
74 The Davy —Steam-Engines in Cornwall.
I think it extremely hard that our feelings should be lacerated
by the obstinacy of prejudice or error in neglecting to use ‘the
Davy” in mines subject to the fire-damp.—The accident at the
colliery near Durham is a sad example of the too palpable truth,
that we have yet much to encounter in its universal adoption.
Much pains have been taken indeed, by persons who ought to
have known better, to unhinge the mind in the belief of its ab-
solute safety. I am ready at any time to prove, at the risk of
my life, that it yields a perfect security to the miner. I have
lately had a most decided proof of this in one of the collieries
at the Hurlet near Paisley. The mine-in question had been
abandoned wpwards uf twelve months, by reason of the accumu-
lated and still accumulating fire-damp. The experiment afforded
a spectacle of the most beautiful and impressive kind,—The gra-
dual approach to the confines of the explosive waste was indi-
cated by the included flame of the lamp presenting a lengthened
spire, so as ultimately to brush the dome of the cylinder ;—on
passing this boundary the wire-gauze hecame suddenly red hot,
and the flame of the wick was enveloped by the apparition of a
foreign flame which continued to fill the cylinder—a candle
here might have proved as destructive as any upon record ; for in
an extent of three or four acres, it exhibited from the floor up,
an explosive medium. These mines had some years ago to re-
cord an accident by which seventeen human beings were con-
signed to eternity.
There was a phenomenon here which forcibly impressed me,
The degrees of the fire-damp and explosive measure, as indicated
by “ the Davy,” proved that they were not uniform in diffusion,
but existing im strata or clouds throughout the atmosphere of
othe mine.
From some recent experiments, on the subject of which I may
again address you, I am of opinion that the principle of safety
in this wonderful instrument is to be attributed to the depolari-
zation of the flame by the wire-gauze.
I am respectfully, sir,
Your most obedient servant,
Greenock, July 22, 1817. J. Murray.
PRESERVATION OF MEAT.
Don Eloy Valenzuela, curate of Bucaramanga in South Ame-
rica, has discovered that meat may be preserved fresh for many
months by keeping it immersed in molasses.
STEAM ENGINES IN COKNWALL.
According to Messrs.’ Lean’s Report for May and June, the
following were the respective quantities of water lifted one foot
high
,
:
:
:
“
4
Steam Engines in Cornwall,—Deaths. 75
high with one bushel of coals, by the engines annexed, during
‘these months.
Work performed in May.
Pounds of water.
, Load per square
inch in cylinder.
- 25 common engines averaged 23,107,534 various.
Woolt’s at Wheal Vor _.. not reported. Hehe’
Ditto Wh. Abraham .. 52,349,333 15-1 lib.
Ditto ditto.) 3% -. 24,713,750 3°7
Ditto Wh. Unity -. 34,928,030 13-1
Dalcouth engine .. .. 44,205,739 11:2
United mines j »- 36,874,193 16:2
Wheal Chance oe -. 39,589,154 13-0
Work performed in June.
23 common engines averaged 22,206,996 various.
Woolf’s at Wheal Vor 38,438,168 15°4
Ditto Wh. Abraham ., 40,135,339 15-2
Ditto ditto .. : 22,577,264 3:7
Ditto Wh. Unity -- 30,740,843 131
Dalcouth engine .. .. 41,484,504 11:2
United mines oe e-. 34,298,994 VR
Wheal Chance os .- 82,615,890 13-0
DEATHS.
It is with regret we have to announce the premature death of
our much-valued correspondent George John Singer, esq. author
of “ Elements of Electro-Chemistry.” His death was occasioned
by pulmonary consumption, and took place on the 28th of June,
in his 31st year. This distinguished philosopher began to teach
the sciences at an age when other men are commencing their
studies. His patient and investigating spirit, combined with great
mechanical skill and unwearied industry, enabled him to make
some very important improvements in the instruments used in
electricity, and that science owes to him some valuable discoveries.
His work, which has received the honours of a double translation
into French, will remain a lasting monument of his talent—it
may safely be pronounced the best manual of the subject it em-
braces.— In private life Mr.Singer’s virtues endeared him to
all who had the honour of his acquaintance, among whom were
some of the most able philosophers of the age. This circle
might have been greatly enlarged, but that he loved retirement
and privacy, more than those who delighted in his society
could have wished. In him science has lost an arduous and
highly-gifted votary, the community a most valuable member,
his friends an inestimable treasure.
M. Werner, the celebrated mineralogist, died at Dresden on the
30th of June, at the age of 67. He has bequeathed his excellent
collection
76 " Patents.— Astronomy.
collection of minerals, consisting of more than 100,000 speci-
mens, and valued at 150,000 crowns, to the Mineralogical Aca-
demy of Frevberg.
Dr. Spurzheim having finished his Course of Spring Lectures
_on the Brain, set off on Monday the 21st of July for Paris. The
period of his stay in France is uncertain,
LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS,
To Thomas Wedlake, of Hornchurch, Essex, for certain imi- _
provements on ploughs.—Dated 5th July 1817.—To specify in
2 months. = W
‘To David Brewster, LL.D., of Edinburgh, for a new optical
instrument called The Kaleidoscope, for exhibiting and creating
beautiful forms and patterns of general use iv all the ornamental
arts.—10th July.—2 months,
To Captain Samuel Brown, R.N., for his improvement in the
construction of a bridge, by the formation and uniting of its com-
ponent parts in a manner not hitherto practised,—10th July.—
6 months.
To William Henry Simpson, of Bickington, Devon, for cer-
tain improvements in the machinery for the spinning of wool,
cotton, and other fibrous substances.—10th July.—2 months.
To Richard Farmer Brain, of Salford, Lancaster, brewer, for
an improvement or apparatus calculated to obtain or generate gas
in a more ceconomical manner than heretofore, from coal or any
other article, material, or substance, for lighting or heating
houses, manufactories, or other places where light or heat is re-
quired.— 10th July.—6 months,
To Henry Tritton, of Clapham, Surrey, for his apparatus for
distilling.— 15th July.—6 months.
To Thomas Aspinwall, esq. of Bishopsgate Church-yard, Lon-
don, for an elliptic valve-pump box, communicated to him by a
certain foreigner residing abroad.—16th July. —6 months.
—=
Astronomical Phenomena, August 1817.
D. HH. M. D,H. M.
4.0.0 9 215 Mayer*12°N. 18.525 Dan
4.0. O ( apogee 19.3.4 Dxx
-4..0.0 9 223 Mayer* 6 N. 19.745 DAH
5.958 »o 20.19.31 ) 6 Ophiuchi
6.439 DAY 22.4.6 Dot
8. 0,15 9) 125% 22.8.2 Do ft
8.0.16 )p132¥ 23. 2. 1 © enters ny
14.15.36 p vy my 25. 3.11 ) EVs
15.18.51 Dyn 30.12.19 Dox
17. 0. O j perigee
Meteoro-
a 4
:
:
|
}
|
|
:
q
:
—
ee -
Meteorology. ' ‘77
Meteorological Observations kept at Walthamstow, Essex, ieee
June 15 to July 15, 1817.
[Usually between the Hours of Seven and Nine A.M. and the Thermometer
(a second tine) between One and Two P.M, ]
Tate. Therm. Barom. Wind.
June
15
16
28
57
64
47
5 67
52
~ 69
63
83
67
70
67
84
67
86
67
$2
63
SO
59
70
30°22
30°33
39°11
29°77
29-77
29:78
29-88
30:10
30°10
29:98 -
29-99
29°97
29°65
29-60
NW.—Sun and cumulis fine day; fine clear
evening ; stratus NW.
N—SE.—Very fine morning; fine, hot, sun
aud wind; stars and cirrostratus.
SE—E.—Clear aud calm; very fine day; some
cirrus at 6 P.M.; clear night.
SE— E.—Clear sunshine 3 cumuli NW hori-
zon; fine day; moon, stars; cumuli E; and
cir rostratus NW.
SE.—Clear and GitnuiWe fine day; very hot;
clear and cirrostratus NW.
N—SE—E.—Clear and hot fine day; re-
markably strong. dew till late in'the day in
the shade; clear, calm night, and very hot.
N.NE—E. — Hazy and sun; fine hot day;
clear ; stratus NW ; corona round the moon.
N.NW-—NE.— Hot sun and windy; fine day;
clear,and cirrostratus. Moon first quarter *.
N—E—N.—Sun; wind; and cirrostratus ;
great wind, and cwmult ; fine day; clear, and
cirrostratus.
N—NW.—Hazy;- no sun visible; fine hot
day; 8 PM. thunder and great rain; clear,
and. cirrostratus.
NW—W.— Cloudy; hot sunny day; clear
moon- and star-light.
NW—SE—NW.—Very hazy; slight rain;
fine hot day; clear and clouds.
NE—E—W.—Hot, sun and wind; sun and
clouds; 6 P.M. great: storm, thunder and
lightning; rain and hail, and remarkable
sky; black mimbus which hung like a cur-
tain NW.; at 7 P.M. the sun shone between
the clouds and dark nimlus all around;
cloudy night.
NW—W.—Fine, and clear, and windy ; fine
day; showers after 3 P.M.; clear night at
104 P.M. Full moon.
* Cats retired under trees into the shade to sleep (a sign of uncommon
heat) frequently since the 19th of this month.
June
78 Meteorology.
June
29 60 29:98 S—SE.—cumuli, and cléar; fine day: eirro-
73 stratus and windy,
30 63 29°76 S.SE—NW—SE.—Cloudy; some showers;
‘ 69 sun and clear ; fine day; clear and windy.
July ;
1 60 29:75 SE.—Clear and cirrostratus; rain after 10.
61 A.M. and windy, and very damp all day till
about 5 P.M.; cloudy and great wind.
2 59 29°83 N.—Clouds, and stormy wind; fine day; clear
66 and cirrocumuit.
3 56 29°87 W—SE—E.—Cloudy and hazy; fine day;
70 showers 3 cumulostratus, and wind. ,
4 59 29-65 SE—SW—W.—Rain; clear and clouds; fine
67 day; clear, and cumuli.
5 55 29:65 NW—W—SW.—NW.—Rain; fine day;
69 showers; {a thunder storm at Clapton];
clear, and dark stratus high NW. :
6 55 29°66 S—SW.—Rainy morn; showery; sun and |
70 clouds; clear, and cirros/ratus. Moon last |
quarter.
7 55 29°67 W—W.—Sun and cumuli; fine day; clear,
68 and cirrus, and stars.
8 56 29°88 N.—Clear, clouds, and wind ; fine day; star-
. 69 light.
9 59 29:38 W—SW.—Cirrostratus; clear; sun and wind;
73 fine day; cirrostratus, and clear.
10 59 29:88 SE—S.—Sun and stratus; fine day; some
77 drops of rain after 5 P.M.; star-light.
11 62 29:77 SE—SW.—Clear, and cumuli; fine day;
70 star-light and windy. -
12 59 29-78 NW—N.—Slight rain early; sunshine and
70 windy; clouds and wind.
13° 59 29:98 S—SW—W—SW.—Hazy and sun; fine day;
67 showers between 4 and 6 P.M.; cloudy
and windy.
14 55 29°76 S—SW—W.—Hazy and windy; slight
63 showers and sun; cloudy and windy. New
moon,
15 52 29:32 SE--NW—N.—Very great rain; Sun and
64 showers; black mimbus and fog at 83 A.M. ;
showery,
The wind is set down by a weathercock accurately fixed to due north and.
south, and not by one fixed by a compass, but by the meridian, by Mr.
Thomas Forster, at the altitude of about one hundred feet,
METEO RO-
Meteorology. 79
METEOROLGGICAL. JOURNAL KEPT AT BOSTON,
LINCOLNSHIRE.
i a
{The time of observation, unless otherwise stated, is at 1 P.M.]
ee
‘ge off Rape
1817. | the |thermo-| Baro- |State of the Weather and Modification
Moon} meter. | meter. of the Clouds,
DAYS
Junei5} 1 | 58° | 30°26 |Cloudy
16} 2] 64° | 30°40 /|Very fine
17; 31 6& || 30°15 |Ditto
18} 4] 7i* | 29.86 |Ditto
19} 5 | 82° j{ 29°91 |Ditto—thunder storm and heavy
é rain at 8 P.M. for half an hour
20; 6 | 82° | 29°95 |Ditto
| i i Bele 8g 30°27 |Ditto
22} 8 | 76°5 | 30°19 |Ditto
23} 9 | 75°5 | 30°14 |Ditto—rain at night
94410; 72° 30°3 |Cloudy
25] 11 | 78° j 30°6 |Very fine—thunder storm and rain
26| 12 | 70°5 | 29°94 |Cloudy {3 P.M.
27; 13 | 63: } 29°75 |Ditto
28} full | 67°5 | 29°80 |Ditto
291 15 | 68 | 30° |Very fine
30} 16 | 58° | 29°77 |Rain—heavy thunder storm and
violent shower of hail and ice
July 1) 27 | 64°5 | 29°77 [Rain
2} 36 | 59°5 | 29°70 |Cloudy—blows hard from S.W.
3} 19 | 69° | 29°98 |Ditto—rain at night
4) 20} 71° 29°71 |Ditto ditto 7
5} 21 | 57° | 29°70 |Ditto ditto
6| 22 | 65* | 29°76 |Showery—ditto
. 7| 23 | 68° | 29°30 |Cloudy
j 8} 24} 62° | 29°93 |Ditto
9} 25 | 64° | 29°99 |Very fine
: 10} 26 | 72° | 29°94 |Cloudy—rain at night
1] 27:4 66° | 29°89 |Rain
12} 28} 62* | 30°5 |Cloudy—rain at night
t 13} 29} 63° 30° |Showery—heavy ditto
: 14|new| 68 | 29°70 |Ditto
‘ There has been a great deal of rain fallen since the 1st July;‘and thun-
‘ der almost every day in the past month, It is to be observed that the
thermometer is hung against a wall upon which the sun never shines. The
20th June it rose to 91* in the sun removed from any thing which could
reflect and increase the heat of the air,
80 Meteorology.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,
By Mr. Cary, OF THE STRAND,
For July HSL Zc
r Thermometer. = ‘
a) ~~ || Height of mé 3
ea a 23 3 5 =. the Barom. 2a8 Weather.
OS| Ss || Inches. | E's =
oe lvl? oe =
A i AS ce Ret oS
June 27| 68 | 74 | 64 | 29.55 52 |Showery —
28) 63 | 72 | 58 72 71 \Fair
29| 60 | 70 | 62 "80 57. |Fair
30| 64:| 68 | 55 69 52 |Showery
July 1} 60 | 60 | 53 50 o |Rain
2| 52 | 66 | 57 65 45 \Fair
3| 58 | 66 | 57 10) 36 |Showery
4, 57 | 64} 54 60 38 Cloudy
5| 59 | 66 | 57 50 31 |Cloudy -
6| 57 | 67 | 56 "62 46 |Fair
7| 61 | 67 | 55 73 55, |Fair
gi 61 | 70 | 61 *8U 70 =«—*|Fair
9| 62 | 70 | 60 80 34 |Fair
10| 62 | 74 | 61 78 67. ‘(\Fair
1t} 64 | 70 | 62 75 45 |Fair
12] 62 | 76 | 63 90 37. |Showery
13| 62 | 67 | 57 80 32 |Showery
14} 60 | 64°| 56 58 32 |Showery
15| 62 | 64 | 54 20 30 |Showery
16| 55 | 62 | 55 "62 52 {Cloudy
55 |Fair
4} |Fair
47 |Cloudy
42 |Cloudy
46 |Fair
38 |Showery
36 |Cloudy
61 |Fair
‘62 |Showery
o |Rain
N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o’clock.
Cena aaa
a
—
pela
XI. On the Cause of Ebbing and Flowing Springs. By GaviN
IN@xis, Esq.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Srp, — As you have again brought into notice the ebbing
and flowing spring of pure fresh water in Bridlington harbour in
the 227th Number of your valuable Magazine, I beg leave to
send the substance of some obsetvations intended to have been
submitted to you at the time Dr. Storer’s communication to Sir
J. Banks was published i in your xlvth volume, page 432.
Dr.S., after relating the circumstances which led tothe discovery
of the spring, says: ‘¢As soon as the surface water in the harbour
during the flowing of the tide has arrived at a level of 49 to 50
inches lower than the top of the bore, the water begins to flow
from it in a stream equal to its calibre; the impetus of which is
increased as the tide advances, and may be observed to be pro-
elled with much ferce after the bore is overflowed by the tide.
The discharge continues from four to five hours, 7.e. till the tide in
returning falls to the same ievel at which it began to flow.—The
rule appears to be, that the column of spring water in the bore
is always supported at a height of 49 to 50 inches above the level
of the tide at any given time.”— Such is the state of facts,”
continues the Doctor; “ and it appears to open a subject of
curious investigation to those whose habits and practical know-
ledge qualify them for it. The appearances seem, tot to ad-
mit of any satisfactory explanation, without supposing some mode
of subterranean communication, by which the water of the sea
and that of the spring in question are brought into actual con-
tact so as to exert a reciprocal action.”
I beg leave to differ from the Doctor in supposing the rise of
the fresh water above the level of the tide to proceed from these
waters coming into actual contact, upon the principle of two
liquids of different specific gravities in an inverted syphon.
The facts themselves are at variance with this hypothesis.
The well-known specific gravity of the German Ocean does
not so far exceed that of pure spring water as to equal a column
of 49 to 50 inches of superior altitude. The stratum of very
solid clay, the tapping of which procured for Bridlington this
wonderful supply of very fine water, will be found upon examina-
tion to extend not only from Flamborough Head by the Smith-
wick Sands to SpurnPoint, but to underlie Bridlington, the whole
Wolds behind, and up the country till it runs out and is succeeded
by that cretaceous gravelly soil whose dipping stratum occupies
the intermediate space betwixt the clay and the rock. To this
alone is to be attributed the want of water in the Wolds; the
Vol. 50, No,232. August 1817, ¥ few
82 On Ebling and Flowing Springs.
few streams or rivulets; their Jowness in summer and dryness
in autumn ; their regular supply being only what oozes or per-
colates through the clay. The substratum of gravel will be
found to be the common receptacle of all the waters that fall in
the upper country, and which would otherwise flow in copious
springs and streams over the wolds, &c.
The Gipsies will be found mere perforations of the superstratum
of clay; and one and all of them at some seasons, although di-
stant from the sea, to be less or more ebbing and flowing springs.
These begin to flow copiously, after the frost has so far pene-
trated the upper mould or turf as to solidify the surface of the
clay, and prevent all further oozings of the water from below;
then the accumulation of waters in the substratum must increase
with great rapidity, become irresistible, and propel themselves
with force from every opening; which projection will increase at
all times with the flowing tide, and be at the highest at full sea,
lessen in proportion as the waters of the ocean recede, leaving
the flexible clay to give way to the hydraulic pressure from be-
low when freed from the weight of waters above. Clay, however
solid (in an unburnt state), when moist is an elastic substance ; _
and, in fact, that whole bed extending from Flamborough Head
to Spurn Point will be found to rise and fall with the ebbing
and flowing of every tide. When the recess of the ocean, as I
have said above, lessens the pressure upon the upper surface of
this immense bed of clay, whose extent must in an eminent de-_
gree contribute to its elasticity, the hydraulic pressure on the
under stratum, by waters from an unknown altitude, must raise
the whole mass in proportion as the force is superior to the re-
sistance. The return of the tide brings with it the weight and
altitude of its mass of waters, and unavoidably acts on the flexi-
bility of the clay, as a pressure would on an hydraulic blowpipe ;
and of course “ sets up the Gipsies,” whose rise, in a calm, will
be progressive and smooth. But in a storm, the clay, shaken
by the thundering violence and beating of the waves, must occa~
sion the consequent undulation of the water from the springs, by
its elastic vibrations. When the collection of waters from above
is greater than the natural discharge of these gatherings, by the
fissures in the rock at the back of Smithwick Sands, then the
Gipsies must get up, and the springs will naturally flow higher
and longer every tide, than when the collection is little more
than the natural discharge.
To Bridlington this discovery has been of great advantage.
But there is a result of infinitely greater consequence to that
town and neighbourhood than the mere production of pure fresh
water for the ordinary purposes of life. By sufficient tapping,
the Wolds might be rendered inestimabiy valuable and produc-
tive,
a ae
Report of the Select Committee on Steam-Boais. 83
tive, comparatively speaking, by giving free vent to the waters
from below the clay, instead of leaving it to ooze through, which
keeps the soil always weeping ;—consequently damp, cold, and
unproductive. In an age of improvement like the present, it is
to be wondered that this has not been attended to. There is no
mode of draining a clay soil equal to boring, particularly when
lying on a substratum of gravel: whenever this is the case, water
may always be procured by boring in the dipping of the gravel
stratum; on the contrary, by boring in the cross levels, a stream
may be turned into the bore, and disappear. Hence the Scotch
ee of “driving the bottom out of a well,” by sinking too
eep.
St. Winifred’s or Holy Weil in Flintshire is the discharge of
waters collected under similar circumstances ; and probably at
no great distance from its source, the waters being muddy and
whey-coloured after heavy rains. These waters now, instead
of working miracles, are turned to a more rational though per-
haps not a more profitable account,—-that of turning useful ma-
chinery: and I have no doubt whatever, but by sinking or boring,
and casing with cast-iron boxes, a quantity of water might be
procured, in the neighbourhood of Bridlington, sufficient for,
and which might be most profitably applied to, the working of
even heavy machinery, either by applying the water direct from
the pit or bore, raised sufficiently to cover the wheels of ma-
chinery, or by throwing it into reservoirs, and applying it in pro-
portion to the weight required for the machinery to be driven.
It is impossible to conceive to what extent this might be car-
ried, and to what a pitch of commercial greatness this simple
discovery may raise Bridlington.
Strathendry Bleachfield, Fife, July 22, 1817.
XII. Report of the Select Committee appointed to consider of
the Means of preventing the Mischief of Explosion from hap-
pening on board Steam- Boats, to the Danger or Destruction
of His Majesty’s Subjects on board such Boats.
[Continued from p. 65.]
The Evidence of Seva Hunt, Esq.
Anz you concerned with the province of Louisiana ?>—I have
been in Louisiana; I formerly was commandant in Upper Loui
siana.
Can you furnish the Committee with any information in re-
spect of the safety of steam-boats ?—In the United States a great
F 2 number
84 Report of the Select Committee
number of steam-boats have been established: The first was
at New-York; there are now running between New-York and
Albany, ten boats; two betweer New-York and the State of
Connecticut; four or five to New-Jersey; besides the ferry-boats
that pass and repass across the river, of which there are four;
those boats work all by low pressure engines ; no accident has
ever happened to any one of them; they have been running since
the year 1807; and the boats at Albany perform about forty
trips each per annum.
What distance is that ?—An hundred and sixty miles. They
go up in twenty-one hours, and come down in nineteen; some-
times a little longer, but never shorter than nineteen ; that is
the quickest passage.
At what rate per hour do they go?—Some of them go about
seven miles an hour in still water; some boats have gone nine,
ten, or eleven knots ; but that is under particular circumstances.
They have come from Newhaven to New-York, ninety miles, in
six hours and a half, without any sail.
Do they ever make use of a sail?—They have a sail and a
mast, which they can lower down and raise up to take advantage
of a favourable wind, to assist them in their passage.
Those boats are upon rivers ?—Those which go to Albany pass
up the North River, and the others to Conneeticut pass through
what is called Long Island Sound, which is forty miles broad in
one part of it. On the river Delaware there are a number of
boats also established, which ply between Philadelphia and
Trenton, in New-Jersey; and Philadelphia and Bordenton, in
New-Jersey; also others between Philadelphia and Newcastle,
and Philade! phia and Wilmington ; beside ferry-beats which pass
and repass the Delaware. Sev eral of those boats have low pres-
sure engines, others have high pressure engines, working the
high pressure engines from 100 to 140 pounds the square inch,
and as high as 160; but those engines are constructed upon
Oliver Evans’s plan, called the Columbian plan.
Are they of wrought iron ?7—Yes ; there are no cast-iron hoilers
in America. I presume that may arise from their not having
foundries in which they can cast them sufficiently large ; they
are all wrought-iron boilers or copper; all which have to pass
through salt-water are copper. The boat Etna, which passes
between Philadelphia and Wilmington, is ahigh pressure engine,
and outstrips all the other boats; there is no competition at all
between them. ‘There are boats which pass also on the Chesa-
peak, which is there forty miles wide ; they pass from Baltimore
to French Town and back, regular boats, two lines of boats ;
one leaves Baltimore one day and the other the next; they pass
every
on Steam-Boats. 85
every other day alternately. There are other boats from Balti-
more, which go to Norfolk; there they pass a still wider part
of the Chesapeak, which may be sixty miles wide; they have
been to New-London, which jis still more exposed ; and have
been up to New-Hertford.
Are those with high pressure engines?—-No; low pressure.
On the Potowmac there are also steam-boats, and on the James
River, which pass between Richmond and Norfolk.
Have any accidents been known to arise on account of the
heavy seas?—_No; no accident whatever. I have not mentioned
the most important circumstance connected with this:—the
Powhattan steam-boat was built at New-York, went into the
Open ocean, encountered for three days a very severe gale of
wind, arrived safe at Norfolk and up to Richmond. The gen-
tleman is now in England who navigated her; and I have heard
him say, that he felt himself as safe as he should in a frigate ;
and he said there was this advantage, that the steam power en-
abled him when they could not have borne sails, to put the head
of the vessel to the sea, instead of lying in the trough of the sea,
heing exposed to be over-run by the waves.
What was her tonnage ?—Two hundred and fifty tons.
What is the largest steam-boat in America ?—The largest I
have seen are those on the Mississipi, the Etna and the Vesuvius,
which ply between New-Orleans and the Naches ; they are 450
tons, and they carry 280 tons merchandize and 100 passengers ;
700 bales of cotton besides the passengers are transported to
New-Orleans.
Have you any regular allowance of power according to a ton?
—I believe that after they have proved their boilers, which I pre-
sume should be done in all cases, if they wish to ascertain the -
pressure, they work with safety at half that which it has been
proved at.
Is there any rule according to tonnage established as an usage?
—I am not an engineer, and am not conversant with that sub-
Ject; I have passed through the country, and have been on
board most of those boats, but Iam not acquainted with that
fact.
Have any accidents happened ?—Within my recollection only
three accidents have happened to steam-boats in America: the
first happened on the Ohio, and was occasioned, as stated by
the public papers, by the negligence and inattention of the en-
gineer, who loaded the safety-valve, and neglected to attend the
fire; all hands were engaged in hoisting the anchor, the fire
was in a very high state, and of course produced a vast deal of
steam that did not escape by the ordivary operation of the en-
gine, which would discharge it and carry it off,
F3 What
86 Report of the Select Committee
What is called the safety-valve had been improperly loaded
and neglected?—-Yes, but that never need happen; the principle
of steel-yards is to put a weight at the end, and if you put no more
than that, it will answer its purpose ;—so with a steam-engine;
it may be overloaded, and its effect destroyed. The next acci-
dent happened, not from a fault of any body, but from an act of
God; it was lightning, as was satisfactorily explained to the
public, both by the passengers and those interested in the boat 5
that was at Charleston in South Carolina; the pipe which carries
the smoke up to the top attracted the lightning, and it went down
and split the boiler.
It was not considered as at all connected with the operation
of the engine >No, not at all through negligence. A third ac-
cident happened lately to the Powhattan ; she was not in opera-
tion when it happened; they were out of fuel, they stopped their
boat and lay still upon the water while they went after wood ;
still however they kept up their fire, and the steam was high, and
it exploded in that situation, there being no consumption of the
steam as it accumulated. Those are the only accidents that
ever happened, except such as have happened from vessels taking
fire.
Were those vessels high or low pressure engines ?—All low
pressure engines. No accident has ever happened in America to
a high pressure engine, either ina manufactory or out of it; and
there are many engines used in the manufactories, and in flour-
mills and saw-mills, constructed upon the plan of Oliver Evans,
which act on the high pressure principle to 150 pounds an inch;
he has worked 160, but 120 is his constant average. There is not
an old woman in America that is ever frightened at all at a high
pressure engine, any more than they now are at a cannon. There
is a very large engine, about a forty-five horse power, at St. Sen-
nati, on the Ohio River, which moves seven pair of stones in a
flour-mill, a woollen manufactory, and a cotton manufactory
seven stories high; it works upon the high pressure, and there
are saw-mills and grist-mills at various places.
What is the fuel ?—Wood in most places. - At Pittsburgh and
on the Ohio River it is coal and wood; at Pittsburgh and at
Weeling, and a hundred other places, there is fifty miles square
a solid mass of coal; they drive the shaft horizontally into the
hill, and the coal is abundant above their head in the mountains,
as fine coal as any in the world; it is delivered at the houses of
the inhabitants at sixteen bushels for a dollar. :
Is the number of steam-boats now increasing in America ?—
Very rapidly.
Are those that are now constructing upon the high or the low
pressure system?—-Upon both, because there are different in-
terests
on Steam-Boats. 87
terests and different companies. Mr. Evans being a patentee,
they have to give something for the use of his patent ;—if they
cannot make their bargain with him they use the low pressure
engine; but there is a new engine invented in America, a per-
fectly rotatory engine, built for one-third of the money, which is
now coming into use in several of the steam-boats; and it was
supposed when I came away it would supersede all other en-
gines.
Do you know of any particular guard in the construction of
steam-engines used in America to prevent accidents ?—I know of
no other than that of properly constructing the safety-valve, and
the manner of loading it, so that they cannot get on more than
a certain weight ; they must of course construct them strong
enough and prove them.
They are under no Government regulation >—They are not.
Does that with a rotatory motion consume more coals ?—It
is supposed to consume less; twelve bushels of coals with the
rotatory motion will perform the same work as the other engine
with twenty.
Mr. Timotuy Braman’s Evidence.
You are an engineer, at Pimlico ?>—I am.
You were one of the gentlemen that went to Norwich to in-
quire into the explosion of the steam-boat ?—I was.
Did you go at the request of any party, or of your own volun-
tary suggestion ?—I went in consequence of my friends, Mr. Col-
linge and Mr. Donkin, calling upon me to ask my opinion,
whether it would be right for us to interfere upon such an oc-
casion; I concurred with them that it would, and volunteered
tO go.
Your design was to inquire into the causes of the explosion?
—Yes, and to examine as much of the wreck as we could find.
State to the Committee to what you attribute the accident?
—The observations I made led me to determine it was owing to
the expansive force of the steam, and the inadequacy of the boiler
to sustain that force.
Was it a high pressure or a low pressure engine?—A high
pressure engine; the boiler was badly constructed and shaped.
Of what materials was the boiler composed ?-——Of wrought
and cast iron, and it was the cast-iron part that gave way.
Those two materials expand in a different proportion with the
same degree of heat ?—Yes, they do.
Is it usual to have the boiler of wrought and cast iron?—I
should think it would be avoided on all occasions by experienced
engineers ; but I have often seen it,
This
85 Report of the Select Commitiee
This engine was not made so at first, but altered afterwards 5
was it not ?—Yes, in consequence of the other giving way.
Have you any reason to suppose that the accident might be
attributed to negligence or mismanagement in the director of
it ?>—We had verbal testimony, from which I had ‘no doubt the
steam was at a considerable degr ce of pressure ; but the end was
very improperly made.
Did you ever learn at what rate the man was working ?—No,
I understood he was working at sixty pounds an inch generally,
probably it might be 120 at that moment; but I should think it
not equal to the working of sixty, for it was only three-fourths
of an inch, and a sixteenth in some places in thickness, and it
was four feet in diameter at the end; it was a flat end to the
cylinder like a drum.
Is it possible to construct the engines in steam-boats in such
a manner that there is great improbability of any accident hap-
pening ?—I do not know how to answer as to their being per-
fectly safe; I do not feel that materials, when they are sub-
mitted to so great a pressure, are safe, for we find that very few
materials wil] stand a great degree of pressure for any length of
time ; we often find that a water-press, which has been efficient
six or seven years together, at length gives way, when the me-
tals are subjected to a very great pressure; it is like a blow with
a heavy machine for breaking metals, which does not break the
first time, but is constantly tending to loosen the particles.
Do you think that a high pressure engine, under any guard
‘that can be applied to it, is a safe engine to use in a steam-
boat ?—I do not conceive it is a proper engine, or a safe one.
Did you ever hear of their having been used with wrought-iron
boilers with perfect safety?—No, I have not heard of any com-
parative statement of either the wrought or cast; I know as
are usually made with cast.
Do you consider yourself sufficiently an engineer, with respekt
to the construction of steam-engines, to be able to give of your
own knowledge, a decided answer to such questions ?—Yes, I
do conceive so; [ have paid a great deal of attention to the sub-
ject of steam-engines, and I believe I know the principle of
every one in existence.
If on a certain pressure in a high pressure engine, a safety-
valve or safety-valves were so constructed, as that they would
open and discharge the steam with a pressure much less than
the boiler was calculated for, would not such a boiler be per-
fectly safe, admitting it to be made of proper materials and pro-
perly constructed ?—Yes, if it could be proved that the boiler
was calculated to resist a pressure much greater than that to
which
on Steam-Boats. 89
which it was to be subjected in the ordinary way of business,
and that proper safety-valves were applied, it would be safe’as
long as the action of those safety-valves were insured, and so
long as the perfeetion of the metal could be upheld.
lf a boiler was found to sustain the pressure of 100 pounds to
a square inch, and such boiler had been tried, and it was found,
before used, that. it would-bear.a pressure of 200 pounds upon
the inch, would not such a boiler be perfectly safe to be used, if
the safety-valve was so constructed as to open itself at the pres-
sure of sixty?—I cannot pronounce it perfectly safe, and I must
give this reason ;—I think if a boiler was prepared to sustain
100 pounds, and strained to 200, it might afterwards perhaps
burst at forty, the straining having injured it.
In the situation of steam-boats, might not the unskilfulness
of the sort of persons who manage them render any steam-boat
unsafe ?—I] do not know how that could be the case; they might
by wilful perversion of the proper principle of management ren-
der them unsafe to a comparative extent; for instance, if there
was half the pressure there would be but half the danger under
like circumstances.
Do you or not apprehend, that a boiler upon a proper con-
struction, of wrou ght metal, may be tried with a certain force,
so small in comparison with that pressure which it is intended to
bear, as not to incur any risk of being injured in the proof, and
have a complete surplus of strength, so as to enable it to be af-
terwards used without any danger in the use ?—I should pro-
nounce such a boiler to be perfectly safe, and so long as it main-
tained those properties it would continue so.
Have you considered how safety valves may be constructed as
adapted to boilers, so as to put it out of the power of the person
having the management of them improperly to load them, or to
alter their nature ?—The most simp!e mode which has suggested
itself to me is, to have a double safety-valve, and to lock one up
and to have it examined once a week, or as often as may be ne-
cessary, to see that its action is perfect.
If there were those two safety-valves, one under the manage-
ment of the person who had the direction of the boat, and the
other safety-valve under such guard that he could not prevent
its action; such a boiler would, in your opinion, be safe?—That
would be more safe than any I ave ever seen,
Have you ever witnessed the different effects of the explosion
in cast and wrought iron boilers ?—-No; I have seen wrought
iron vessels that have been burst—torn out, as it were.
Did you never see a cast-iron vessel burst ?>—Yes, many; the
wrought i iron generally tears and opens out, to admit of the fluid
escaping ; it is generally the fluid which does the mischief min
the
90 Report of the Select Committee
the wrought iron is used, and it is both the fluid and the material
which does the mischief when the cast iron bursts; the effect in
cast metal is, to carry the pieces of the metal to a considerable
distance, which is seldom the case in the wrought, unless where
there is any cold shut in the metal; the cast bursts like a shell,
projecting the particles of the metal to a considerable distance.
If an accident of that nature happens to a wrought-iron boiler,
the mischief would probably be confined to the room in which
the boiler was placed?—-No, I do not conceive that to be the
ease; I have no doubt, if it had been a wrought-iron boiler in
this case, the deck of the vessel would have been blown off; the
pressure would have been in all places alike; but here it was only
in a lateral direction, and the end of the boiler was blown into
the river, and by its re-action the boiler itself was thrown into
the river on the other side.
You have said, that you have frequently seen wrought-iron
vessels burst ?—Not frequently in our own experience ; I have
seen copper frequently that has burst.
Have any fatal or serious accidents happened on those occa-
sions?—I have heard of some, but have not witnessed one; the
accidents I have observed have chiefly arisen where cast-iron
boilers have been used.
In the first instance, when wrought-iron boilers are used, the
injury is sustained by individuals by the fluid escaping ?—Yes.
Where cast-iron boilers have been used, it has been by the ex-
plosion of metal ?— Yes; I do not mean to say it may not be by
the explosion of wrought-iron boilers ; it is very difficult to ob-
tain a boiler of perfect metal; and if there are any cold shuts,
or other defects in it, it may explode in the same way.
Is copper subject to the same evils ?—No ; I think itis gene-
rally in a purer state; iron is very impure at the best.
Mr. Joun Taytor’s Evidence.
What is your profession ?—My principal pursuit is that of a
manufacturing chemist, at Stratford in Essex; but I have the
control of a district of copper mines near Tavistock. ¥,
Have those engagements made you perfectly conversant with
the nature and application of steam-engines?—I have attended
to that subject to a certain extent ; of late my attention has been
called to high pressure steam particularly, being concerned with
my brother in a patent for applying high pressure steam to the
boiling of liquids, and using it extensively in our own manufac-
tory, both in steam-engines and for the purpose of boiling.
Are you acquainted with the accident which. lately happened
to the steam-boat at Norwich ?—By report only.
What do you know of that transaction ?—I have heard that
the
‘
on Steam- Boats. 91
the plate of cast iron was of inadequate thickness for the strain
to be put upon it. With respect to the impropriety of cast iron
compared with wrought, we ourselves constructed one of the first
high pressure boilers we used, precisely in the same manner with
that on board the Norwich boat; the boiler was proved to 160
pounds a square inch, by the water proof, commonly used with
about forty pounds pressure, but the cast-iron end broke one day
with less than twenty pounds pressure of steam; the fracture
being caused evidently by the heat expanding the cast-iron end
unequally, and being kept from going to the form it would
otherwise assume.
Then you are of opinion it would be improper to make one of
such a construction ?—As far as J at present know, I should say
it was. Upon that we altered our boilers, all having been since
made of wrouglit iron only. I have seen most of the high pres-
sure boilers which have been made, except Woolf’s. I have seen
Trevethick’s old construction, which were cast iron; his new
construction with his wrought-iron tubes. The Wells-street
boiler, which blew up, I saw immediately after its destruction ;
I was surprised to see that it had been made of cast iron, a pan
of eight feet diameter therefore extending the bursting surface
in the proportion of four to sixteen ; it was of unequal thickness,
badly cast, cast from small furnaces, and the contact of the iron
not complete ; it did not meet in fusion.
Was that a high pressure boiler ?—Yes, intended to boil su-
gar; the thickness was intended to be, doubtless, about two
inches or two inches and a quarter, but by inserting the core
unequally, the thickness on one side was three quarters of an inch,
on the other side the thickness of the metal was two inches and
a quarter, or thereabouts; therefore to the general objections to
cast iron was added a most improper construction. I under-
stand from the men who were working there (the Frenchmen)
that there had been something like a mercurial gauge attached
to it, but that the mercury never fluctuated; it indicated no-
' thing that the safety-vaive was loaded down with weights, which
we could not collect, and therefore did not ascertain the pres-
sure; but that it was probable there was a pressure of more
than 100 pounds per inch.
Had you ever seen it worked before ?—No, nobody was ad-
mitted to see it worked.
How many accidents have occurred in the high pressure boiler
to your knowledge ?—The first | ever heard of was one of Treve-
thick’s at Woolwich.
Was that a cast-iron boiler?—It was, In that case the safety-
valve was a very awkward thing, hardly to be called a safety-
valve; he himself was not awakened to the danger till that ac-
cident
92 Report of the Select Committee
eident happened. The second case that I heard of was in the
North, a propelling engine (it was mentioned in all the papers);
it was near Sunderland, of a boiler driving waggons ; the facts
of the case I know to be these, from the engineer who made the
boiler.—In the first place, they had a smaller boiler to the same
engine; that boiler did not generate steam so fast as the engine
could expand it, consequently there was never an excess of steam
came out of the safety-valve, the engine-man therefore with im-
punity screwed down his safety-valve ; it was never used. ‘The
proprietor of the engine wishing to have more power, ordered a
larger boiler, which had the power of generating nearly double
the quantity, cof steam; this was sent, and a caution given by the
gentleman not to attach it to the engine till he arrived; but
that was not attended to ; the boiler was attached to the engine’
the man went to work as before, and he screwed down his safety-
valve, not knowing, that though before he had a deficiency, he
had now an overplus; he said he would make a good start of it;
the boiler exploded, killed several people, and him among the
rest; and the force was remarkable, as shown by the fragments
of coal that were driven through the men’s clothes or into their
bodies from the tram. The Wells-street was the third case; the
safety-valve was loaded in this case. At Norwich I apprehend
the safety-valve was loaded. ‘The only other case was in Treve-
thick’s new high pressure boiler, the wrought-iron boiler; that,
I should say, was something like a boiler formed of two ‘ares of
circles; it burst without doing any hurt, and perhaps the cir-
eumstance is not known to ten people besides myself. ‘The
people were near it, and it did them no hurt. The reason it
burst was, that a man very ignorantly took out bars which he
should not and altered its construction. These are the only in-
stances I know of the high pressure boilers.
Do you consider low pressure boilers as safe from explosion
under all circumstances ?—Only owing to the column of water
that fills them; that is the only reason [ consider them as safe.
If they are supplied by a column of water, then do you con-
sider them as safe from explosion ?—I do not consider them as
absolutely safe, because I know facts of their bursting; in case
of their not being fed with a column of water they are very un-
safe; for the construction of the boiler is weak in itself, and you
have no dependence but upon a safety-valve, which may be loaded
improperly,
Do you conceive that a wrought-iron boiler may be rendered
safe under all circumstances ?—I do consider that it may.
State how ?—Principally by the use of a column of mercury in
a syphon or tube, of sufficient size; when that mercury is dis-
placed by the expansive force of the steam, which would be re~
gulated
on Steam- Boats. 93
gulated by the height of that tube to admit of the efflux of the
steam from the boiler as fast as it was generated by the fire, in
that case the expansive force could not increase in the boiler, but
the mercury would be blown out and the steam would escape:
that [ consider one of the best securities to the boiler. Besides
the common safety-valve, which may be at the discretion of the
workman, I conceive it essential to have another safety-valve,
which is under the control of the master or proprietor of the
works. There is another small contrivance, which I consider
very important to the safety of the boiler. Boilers have been
weakened very much by the water having been evaporated tuo
low, so that the bottom begins to be acted upon by the fire and
weakened. A hole having been previously bored in the bottom
where the fire acts, may be riveted by a piece of lead, so that
that lead remains perfectly secure as long as it is cowered with
water, but the moment the water leaves it the lead melts; the
steam is blown out through the hole and puts out the fire; be-
sides giving the signal of what is wanted, it at once puts an end
to the cause of danger.
Do you consider that the mercurial gauge acts in any other
manner than as a safety-valve, which cannot be stopped or put
out of order ?—It does not act only in that manner, but it has
the advantage of exhibiting during all times of the boiler’s work-
ing, the state of the steam within the boiler, by the fluctuation
that takes place in that coiumn, as indicated by the index upon
the surface of the mercury, and the state of that mercurial gauge
is observable every moment. If the mercury becomes stationary,
one would strongly suspect that that tube was stopped, therefore
it would point out itself instantly that it had become not what it
ought to be; the safety-valve has not that advantage, as it does
not indicate any thing ‘till the steam is blown out by raising the
weight.
An observation of the mercurial gauge by an intelligent per-
son, would tend to guard against mischief 7+Yes, by any per-
son.
What are the different effects produced by the explosion of
cast and wrought iron ?—<As far as I have stated the fact with
respect to Trevethick’s boiler, which was of wrought iron, a rent
or fissure was produced, and the form of the boiler was disfigured,
but no fragments were thrown about so as to produce any serious
injury.
Do you conceive that to be the usual effect ?—I conceive it
would be the effect ; and I conceive further, that one might pre-
dict with some degree of certainty where that fissure would take
place ; it would take place in that part of the boiler that:is most
exposed to the action of the fire, that growing thinnest.
Ilave
94 Report of the Select Committee
Have you ever seen an explosion of a cast-iron boiler }-««
No, I have not; | have seen the effects at Wells-street, I was
upon the ruins immediately after ; the effect seemed to be tre~
mendous ; there it knocked down the whole building, which was
a sugar-house of five or six stories high, and fragments appeared
to be thrown in every direction; the boiler itself was shattered
into a great number of pieces.
If that had been a wrought-iron boiler and had burst, it would
not have produced the same effect >—I think not.
Are you at all aware, whether there is any preference of copper
above iron, in the construction of boilers for high pressure steam-
engines ?—I should think that copper is the best metal of all;
the most ductile. —But I think at the same time, that with good
wrought iron, boilers may be made perfectly safe up to the esti-
mated strength of from four to five hundred pounds pressure per
inch.
Have you formed any opinion respecting the pressure per inch,
necessary to drive a steam-boat through the water at the highest
rate at which you have heard of any hitherto having gone ?—I
have not turned my attention particularly to the use of high pres-
sure steam, as applicable to steam-boats. But being the owner
of a high pressure engine, I see no advantage at present in go-
ing above forty or fifty pounds an inch in steam-engines.
Supposing then that a boiler were constructed, with the in-
tention of its resisting a pressure of steam equal to 300 pounds
per inch, that it should be afterwards proved with a force equal
to two hundred, and that it should be after that worked with a
pressure under a hundred, do ycu conceive that any supposable
danger could exist under such circumstances ?—None at all;
provided the steain was limited to a hundred.
It is understood of course, that the common precautions of
safety-valves, the operation of which could not be impeded,
should be applied to such boilers?—Yes; with respect to the
valve of high pressure steam for working engines, I beg leave to say
generally, that in Cornwall of late a most valuable improvement
has taken place; and that if it is an object to save coal to steam-
vessels upon a large scale, I do conceive tliat high pressure steam
becomes an object of great importance to them. I mean if ap~
plied upon the principle that Mr. Woolf has in the first place
introduced, but which has been applied by Mr. Sims, and I be-
lieve by some others.
You are of opinion these high pressure boilers might be made
with equal safety as low pressure boilers ?—Quite so.
Do you know any thing of the saving of coal produced by high
pressure engines ?>—I have in my hand a statement of the work
done by the engines on the principal mines in the county of Corn-
wall,
on Sieam- Boats. 95
wall. It states the consumption of coal, and the work done by
every engine therein named, from which it appears that the
average work of engines now in the county of Cornwall, is to
Taise about twenty million pounds of water one foot high, by the
consumption of one bushel of coals; that by the introduction
of high pressure steam under the best mode of management, am
effect equal to from forty-three to forty-five million pounds of
water is raised the same height by the same quantity of coal,
thereby producing above double the effect. ,
Do you apprehend that condensing or low pressure engines
are liable to be blown up by the carelessness and inattention of
the engineer conducting them?—lI apprehend equally so with
high pressure engines; and I am of that opinion from facts which
have reached me. InFrance, at Crusog, some very good engines
were erected by Mr. Wilkinson, at a very large work, They,
were on Bolton and Watt’s principle; one of them blew up and
killed several people. I have heard of other instances, but they
are not within my own knowledge.
Do you conceive that the mercurial gauge may be applied with:
ease to the high pressure boilers, so as to produce safety, as cer-
tainly as the column of water, which is in fact a water-gauge,
which is usually applied to the low pressure?—I] do most un-
doubtedly think that, provided the mercurial gauge be of a
sufficient bore; and I think, in some respects, it would have the
advantage of the water-gauge, as being less liable to accidental
obstruction.
Do you conceive that there is any difficulty whatever in con-
structing a safety-valve, so as to operate with certainty, and to
be safe from any impediment which the engineer might inten-
tionally place in the way of its operation ?—I do think such a,
safety-valve can be constructed.
Do you apprehend any additional considerable expense would
be thereby incurred ?—Not any considerable expense; we have
done it to all the boilers we have lately superintended the erec-
tion of, putting them under lock.
Mr. Joun Cortince’s Evidence.
What profession are you of ?—An engineer and iron-founder.
In the course of your profession, are you conversant with the
nature of steam-engines ?—I have made several.
Where do you live ?—In Bridge Road, Lambeth.
I believe you are the patentee of the patent axle-tree ?—I am.
Did you go to Norwich in consequence of the accident that
happened to the steam-boat there ?—I did, in company with
Mr. Donkin and Mr. Brown.
Did you go at the request of any person ?—No, it was volun-
tary,
96 Report of the Select Committee
tary, from an impression the public mind would be alarmed, and.
wish to know the cause of the accident.
Did you see the boiler, or any of the remaining part of that
éngine >—I did.
Do you atttibute the eatise of that explosion to the construc-
tion of the boiler >—I do.
Be so good as to state what it was?—The boiler was com-
posed entirely of wrouglit iron, except one end, and that was
eapped with cast-iron.
The cylindrical part was made of wrought iron ?}—Yes.
Tt was a high presstire boiler ?—It wags. sehen
Originally it had all been wrought iron ?—It had, T believe.
But upon an alteration they put one end of cast iron?—Yes.
Was not such a conjunction of ‘metals in such a place very
dangerous ?}—Certainly.
Principally because the expansion of the metal is totally dif
ferent in one and the other ?—Yes.
What is your opinion, as an engineer, in respect to the ma~
terial of which boilers in gener al should he made ?—Any material
under very severe pressure is liable to fail, and cast iron for this
reason, because in all large bodies we find that the air cannot
wholly escape im the act of fusion, I have occasionally had
large masses of cylinders and pans to break up, and we find fre-
quently cells where the air could not escape, so that we are never
certain as to the solidity of cast iron there is’ certainly a much
greater dependence upon wrought iron or upon wrought metal
perhaps it would be better to gnclude copper.
In wrought iron there is danger from cold shut ?—Yes.
Supposing an accident should happen to any boiler, which
would be most likely to be attended with the greatest mischief;
a cast-iron or a wrought-iren boiler ?—Cast iron, because cast
iron flies off in fragments, and wrought, from tenacity, only
rends. :
Did you ever hear of an accident in a wrought-iron boilér
when it has exploded, that has done any considerable mischief ?
—I was almost upon the point of believing, that wrought-iron
boilers would have resisted a degree of pressure, 1f properly made,
beyond what I find they will do; because an accident has oc-
eurred at Malden, where a boiler, nineteen feet long, was blown
off from the seat of its connexion with the base. I have found,
in making wrought-iron boilers myself, that if I make them of
metal of a considerable substance, that they cannot be so well
united to make them steam tight; it 1s a very difficult thing to,
do; how far that is the case with copper, I have no acquaintance,
but perhaps it would not be precisely the case with copper; the
rivets that are applied to wrought-iron boilers are put in hot,
and
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and when they are hammered to secure the joint, they get cold,
of course they shrink, and do not fill the hole through which they
have passed.
The wrought-iron boiler which vou stated burst was not ap-
plied to a boat ?—No, for a salt-work.
_ Is it your opinion, as an engineer, that any boiler, whether of
wrought or of cast iron, but particularly of wrought iron, could
be made, by the construction of safety-valves, so secure that all.
danger from it would be almost impossible ?—At present I have
no conception that any safety-valves could be applied to render
them perfectly secure under heavy pressure.
Is it your opinion, that if a boiler was originally constructed
of wrought iron, to bear a pressure of 100 pounds to the square
inch, and that such boiler had been tried by experiments, say at
sixty, and that a safety-valve was applied to it which should open
at a pressure of thirty, such a boiler would be liable to be ex-
ploded ?—Not unless it had been previously strained by the ex-
periment to render it too weak.
Cannot a safety-valve be so made that it shall open, and be
certain to open, at a particular pressure?—The safety-valves
ought always to open at that pressure ; but from causes that we
cannot ascertain, that does not happen in cases where accidents
occur; it is to be hoped that safety-valves will be contrived to
answer for high pressure engines.
Would it not be possible to apply to such an engine as that a
tube with a column of mercury?—Yes, and it would be a judi-
cious application ; but it requires such an altitude, I apprehend
it is not very easily applicable to boats from the agitation of the
vessel; but if it could be applied, it is the best application thas
can be made.
In the low pressure engines the general safety is by a column
of water ?—Yes.
That could not be used on board a boat ?—No.
Then you think the mercurial gauge would be the greatest
safety for a boat, if it could be applied ?—Certainly; if it could
be judiciously applied, it possesses greater safety than any other,
Have you seen steam-boats on the Clyde or Humber ?—No,
You know those on the Thames ?—Yes.
What is the greatest power that would be required >~—The
coudensing-engines should not be more than four pounds to an
inch ; and if the capacity of the vessel allows of it, the condens-
ing-engines answer every purpose, because you can have one on
board more than sufficient for the tonnage ; because the making
a wrought-iron boiler would be on such a Scale of thickness,
that if more than the usual pressure was applied, the rivets would
fail, and constitute a security against any fatal occurrence.
~ Vol. 50, No,232, August 1817. G Could
98 Report of the Select Committee
Could not a boiler then be made for what they call a high
pressure engine, equally safe?—I should apprehend not, for the
reasons I have stated: I have made several boilers, and I find if
the plates are thick beyond the dimension usually employed for
condensing-engives, that they do not prove equally steam-tight.
Explain whether you mean the plates or the seams >—I mean
that the seams are not equally steam-tight.
Did you from any report you heard, besides the bad construc-
tion of the boiler at Norwich, discover that any negligence was
imputable to the direction of that engine ?—It was presumed by
report that he was imprudent frequently; for the purpose of im-
pelling his vessel with greater force, that he did load his engine
too much.
Did you sée any body who had escaped from that accident
who was on board the boat ?—I did not.
If there was too much weight added to the valve, would not
that occasion the explosion ?—There is no doubt that was the
case; but a much smaller degree of pressure would have burst
-a boiler so constructed.
Then if a boiler had been made properly, and a man had been
so imprudent as to have loaded the safety-valve, the same acci-
dent might have occurred ?—-Certainly.
You have said, from the power that was wanted with regard
to steam-boats, you thought condensing-engines were the best
engines applicable for that purpose ?—I think so, no doubt.
Do you mean the best as applied only to safety, or for use >—
For safety onlv.
But if a high pressure engine could be made with equal se-
curity, would not that be more convenient to be used on board a
boat than a condensing-engine ?—It would take less room.
Would not it in many cases, as they are now constructed, con-
sume less fuel in proportion to the power ?—I am not acquainted
with that fact; but T have frequently asked, and I find in the
common high pressure engine there is no saving in the fuel, but
they are cheaper and more simple in their construction.
Do you apply that to the high pressure engine which they call
the Trevethick engine ?—Yes.
Not to any other ?—Not to Woolf’s.
Nor to Simms’s ?—I have never seen either one or the other.
Suppose that a high pressure engine was to be used in a boat,
what construction of boiler or safety-valve applied to that boiler
should you advise, in order to give it the greatest possible ser
curity ?—I really am unable to answer that question satisfactorily ;
ofcourse the more safety-valves there are employed, the greater
security there will be against the chance of explosion; I believe
that the principal source of the explosion of high pressure en-
gine
on Steam-Boats. 99
gine boilers of cast iron, arises from allowing them to get cool
too suddenly, and raising the steam too suddenly, the metalcon-
tracts and expands at a period when we cannot investigate its
eccurrence.
Wrought iron would not be attended with that danger ?—Not
to the same extent; the rivets would go.
But not with the same degree of explosion ?—No.
Would it not be a great safeguard in the construction of a boiler,
if a safety-valve was so made as to be put out of the power of the.
engineer to get at it?—No doubt, it ought in all cases to be so.
It could be so constructed ?—No doubt ; if the pressure, how-
ever, is greater than what the safety-valve is intended to relieve,
there might be an accident from the causes which I previously
stated; that is, that a boiler might be defective without its being
known. rdeya
You apply that to cast-iron boilers ?—Yes, and in a small de-
gree to wrought-iron boilers.
’ Do you conceive it impossible, or even difficult, to construct
a wrought-metal boiler, with safety-valves properly adjusted to
its capacity, and a mercurial gauge, supposing that to be capa-.
ble of being applied, which should render a high pressure en-
gine on board a steam-boat what might be called perfectly
safe ?—No, I do not think it impossible; and I hope some time
or other it will be accomplished.
Wherein do you apprehend that the difficulty of so construct-
ing a boiler would consist ?—Because I have found that difficulty
in making boilers myself steam-tight, even for condensing-en-
gines, where the plates were of a thickness fit to undergo high
pressure. ;
Do you apprehend that any danger of a fatal accident could
arise from that mere want of tightness in the riveting, which
would permit some steam to escape ?—That danger would de-
pend upon the degree of the pressure, and the extent of the
aperture through which the steam escaped. )
What is the species of danger which you would expect to oc-
cur in such a case ?—I am not able to answer the extent of it.
If the safety-valves acted, of course the danger would be re-
moved; supposing that the safety-valves are properly constructed,
and their operation is secured, the danger would not be extremely
great ; it is only from their defect of action that the danger is to
be apprehended. :
Then do you mean to say, that if the valves were really in
point of fact performing their functions properly, in that event
you would not consider there was any danger ?—Certainly not,
if the boiler was adequate to the pressure. :
What is the pressure per inch which you conceive to be ge-
' tf anG! 2 nerally
100 Report of the Select Committee on Steam-Boats.
nerally used in the condensing-engine?—-From two and a half to
four pounds,
_ Do you not apprehend that the strength of the boileris cal-
al upon what may be required to resist that low pressure ?—=
es,
Is it not extremely possible, in the common use of a condensing
engine, that by accident, or the inattention of the engineer, the
pressure may be increased very much beyond that which you
have just mentioned ?—No inattention would produce it while
these securities exist; because the water would be discharged
through the feed-pipe, and the mischief prevented.
Did you ever know the steam-pipe used in any condensing=
engine on board a steam-boat ?—I fancy they never are.
Did you not hear that the Norwich boiler was blown up by
the very fact of the inattention or temerity of the engineer ?—I
did hear that.
Is not that inattention or temerity equally to be applied toa
condensing as to a high pressure engine ?—The engineer may tie
down the valve occasionally; it is very natural to expect it in
steam-boats. I fancy it is too frequently done; there are in-
stances where something of that sort was said in conversation at
Norwich, that where a man waited for passengers, and wanted
to get up with the other boats, he did it.
Could a mercurial syphon be applied to a boiler, so that it
would meet the observation of all the passengers on board the
boat ?>—I should think it could; but the discharge of mercury,
in case of explosion, might produce very serious effects.
If the syphon was of a sufficient bore, it would be the means
of preventing the effects you have spoken of ?>—No doubt.
In order to give security to the public in travelling by steam-
boats, do not you think that it might be necessary to have an
examination of each engine two or three times in a year?—Cer-
tainly; once every six months. I think it would create confi-
dence, and that is a great object.
And that is your opinion, whether the boiler is constructed of
cast iron or wrought metal ?—Yes.
You think that without this examination a condensing-engine
would be unsafe ?—I think it would be advantageous to have an
examination.
In your judgement, would an inspection of the boilers of a
steam-engine, of a condensing-engine, and a high pressure en-
gine, be equally necessary, with a view to give security against
accidents by explosion ?—Yes ; both.
Do you think any danger to lives is to be apprehended from
condensing-engines without examination ?—I do not think any
material danger would arise. “
[To be continued.] XIII, Further
f 101 4
XIII. Further Considerations on the Doctrine that the Pha-
nomena of Terrestrial Gravitation are occasioned by known
Terrestrial Motions. By Sir RicuarD PHILLIPS.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — Sixcr the publication of the theory which resolves the
phenomena of weight, and of falling bodies, into the orbicular and
rotary motions of the earth, objections have been started, by va-
rious persons in conversation, and through the public press
which the author’s love of truth, and his respect for some of
the parties, induce him to consider.
I. It has been doubted whether bodies would fall in the exv-
hausted receiver of an air-pump upon this hypothesis.
To this it may be replied, that the exhausted receiver, the
contained vacuum, and the bodies let fall before, and at the in-
‘stant of fall, are all of them as much the patients of the orbicular
and rotary motions, as though no such exhaustion had taken
place. The orbicular motion was carrying forward the whole,
and the rotary motion was endeavouring to deflect every part of
the sustained mass, from the right line of the orbicular motion.
The difference arising from the absence of the air is the same,
whatever might be the source of the power which caused the
bodies to fall; that is, a feather would fall in the same time as
a guinea, simply because the atmosphere epposed no resistance,
whether the centripetal force was produced by governing mo-
tions or by attraction.
Il. It is objected that a projectile would continue to ascend
Sor ever, unless ihe force uf attraction drew it towards the earth,
To this I reply, that the deflective force of the rotary motion
is equivalent, in the retardation of a projectile, to the supposed
attraction; and that, in combination with the resistance of the
atmosphere, that deflective force produces all the phenomena
of projectiles, being the orbicular force common to both hypo-
theses.
Ill. It has been objected that, if a body were let fall in the
atmosphere, it would either go off in a tangent into space, or
would move for ever in that place, but for the earth’ s attraction.
In regard to the assertion, that it might move off in a tan-
gent, it need only be considered, that no force has been given it
in the direction of such tangent, and that bodies do not move
in any required direction without some force exerted in that di-
rection.
And that it will not move for ever in an unsupported spot in
the atmosphere, arises from the influence of the deflecting rotary
motion, of which it partook when placed there, in which it con-
tinues, and which it also derives from the surrounding medium,
G3 Iv i
102 On the Doctrine that the Phenomena of Terrestrial
IV. It is contended that the Galilean laws of falling bodies
cannot be accounted for, except on the principle of a continually
acting attraction.
To this I reply, that the great terrestrial motions are, in like
manner, continually acting ; and that from like causes they must
produce like phenomena whenever any body is placed in cireum-
stances to become the sensible patient of their activity.
V. It is urged that local affections of mountains, or other
“masses, can result only from the attractive influence of those
masses; and the experiments of Maskelyne and Hutton, of
Bouguer, of Zach, and of Cavendish, are adduced as proofs.
A mighty host, if their acumen and their accuracy bore on
the question! But, as I refer all phenomena to a centre of
motion, and the Newtonians refer them to a centre of attraction,
and as both centres are generated by the actual dispositions of all
‘the masses of the aggregate—so both centres are varied in po-
sition by unequal arrangements of the masses; and the motions
on the surface referable to such centres are varied accordingly,
and in equal degrees, upon both hypotheses.
If the earth were an equal and homogeneous sphere, then all
the phenomena of falling or suspended bodies would have re-
ference to the mathematical centre of the mass, and the plumb-
line would always hang perpendicularly to the visible horizon ;
but, if a mountain, or any unequal mass, be placed on the sur-
face, then on one hypothesis the centre of the motion, or on
the other the centre of the attraction, will be raised above the
mathematical centre, in a certain proportion, towards that
mountain, creating a new physical centre; and all the deflec-
tions of the rotary motion on this theory, or all the attractions
on the Newtonian theory, will be made with reference to that
new centre. The maximum of variation will take place nearest
to the projecting mass ; and, if the mass were suddenly created,
or brought near a suspended plummet, it would turn it aside,
in a given proportion of the bulk of the mass to the bulk of
the earth; and, as in Mr. Cavendish’s experiment, it might
perhaps be possible to measure the impulse. But, in every
possible case of such inequalities, the same phenomena must
and would result from thus varying the centre of the aggregate ;
whether the phenomena were ascribed, as now, to the efficient
and operative motions of the earth, or, as heretofore, to the
principle called by the name of attraction*, 4
ff
* T have taken it for granted that these experiments and calculations are
correct, because the true results must be included in the laws of motion, as
well as those of gravitation; but I remark, with profound deference to the
learned calculators, that the Schihallien result assumes two-thirds of the
circumference for theearth’s attraction as a quantity admitted 3 apt ise
tT,
Gravilation are occasioned by known Terrestrial Motion. 103
VI. It is urged, that, as attraction is admitted to produce
certain phenomena in electricity, galvanism, chemistry, mag-
netism, and optics, so the attraction of gravitation is but an
analogous power, and might, in like manner, le admitted.
This argument, to say the least of it, is a very indirect one,
ayd includes a large appeal to faith. I say again,“and with little
danger of refutation, that the terms attraction and gravitation
were chimeras of the middle ages, growing out of the schools of
astrology and magic; and, in the writings of the illustrious
Newton, are akin to. the ghosts of the equally illustrious Shake-
speare, or to the sympathies which filled the heads of all philo-
sophers in those days, They may be used like characters in an
algebraic equation; but it is incorrect to substitute them for real
quantities, or efficient causes, or to set them up in opposition to
the operative powers of nature, when these are found to be suffi-
cient to explain phenomena. Nothing, in truth, has tended
more to retard the progress of science than thus stopping at the
phenomena of attraction, and then impiously treating this se-
condary cause as the proximate effect of omnipotent agency,
though it is found to act mechanically and subordinately, accord-
ing to certain laws of the distance!
This is not the place to enter into details to prove that the dif-
ferent species of mechanical affection, without contact, must all
be created by different actions of the affected bodies on the me-
dia which lie between them ; or, mutually, on the surfaces of the
bodies and the surfaces of the media. I confidently, however,
calculate on the discovery of the modus operandi by which every
species of attractive phenomena is effected, as among the pro-
bable triumphs of experimental philosophy. I, therefore, con-
sider the argument in support of a terrestrial attraction, drawn
from the analogy of supposed local attractions, as irrelevant, be-
cause, in the sense in which the terms are used, I believe that
no attraction exists, and that in due time this term will give way
in all the perfect seiences to its explanations or definitions.
VII. It ts objected that this illustration of the cause of ter-
restrial gravitation tends to overturn the Newtonian philosophy,
which is built on the immutable bases of geometry.
To this | reply, that as the great Newton did not affect to ex-
plain this cause, but merely admitted this name of the effect, so
any hypothesis which seeks to account for it can have no neces-
Mr. Cavendish’s leaden-balls’ experiment, the earth’s attraction is assumed
to be represented by its diameter—that is, in both cases, a quantity un-
known, and growing out of the hypothesis of gravity, is taken for granted
to prove that very gravity. If the known bulk, force, and density, of the
mountain and the balls were, by exact analogy, to be compared with the
known bulk of the earth, to determine its force and density, then the results
will be totally different, and the irrelevancy of the experiments be manifest.
G4 sary
104 On the Doctrine that the Phenomena of Terrestrial
sary opposition to his system. At the same time there is a la-
tent, though popular error, in confounding physics and geometry,
for all physical effects result from competent proximate causes,
often varying ; and all geometrical laws result from relations,
always fixed. But, if our excellent philosopher so well accounted
for the phenomena of the solar system by geometry, founded on
the basis of an occult principle, with how much more satisfaction
would he have done it on a mechanical basis! The author of
this hypothesis has caleulated, however,.on no change but in
nomenclature.
VIII. It is asserted, that as gravitation is a fiat of Omnipo-
tence, so to altempt to account for it is beyond the due bounds of
philosophical inquiry.
Without intending any personal disrespect to those who have
used this argument, it may be asserted, that such has been the
prejudice of ignorance from the age in which man first used a
Spade to augment the natural productions of the earth, to the
days of Galileo, and even to our time, when Jenner discovered
the means of extirpating a fatal disease. Shall we more nearly
approach the CAUSE OF CAUsES in determining the mechanism,
by which a planet is held together, or by which a systein moves,
than by investigating the circulation of the blood, or by the che~
mical analysis of any substance in Nature? The causes of mo-
tion would still remain behind; and, were a future age to discover,
these, the prime mover of all things, the sublime and incompre-
hensible Creator and Preserver, would still be at an infinite di-
stance from the finite powers of man.
IX. It is asserted that the law of gravitation is not proved
to be the law of motion.
To prove the affirmative of this proposition was, however, the
entire business of the * Principia’’ of Newton, and has been the
employment of all mathematicians from his time to our own. If
the laws of motion are not the laws of gravitation, then have
philosophers been dicaming during the last hundred years. Lf
merely identify what they have proved; and, as mathematicians
have, by the hypothesis of gravitation, proved the laws of mo-
tion, | now desire to discard the unknown or assumed quantity,
and to restore the known motions of Nature in its place—for
the purpose of explaining the modus operandi by which the
phznomena are produced.
It is imagined that I had forgotten the relations of radii and
circles; I was not, however, alluding to circles, but to the sur-
faces of concentric spheres, which were the objects of discussion,
and which are to each other as the squares of their radii. The
spaces generated on spherical surfaces being to eaeh other as
the squares of their radii, it follows that the quandities of motion
) generated
Gravitation are occasioned ly known Terrestrial Motion. 105
generated i in each stratum, and the forces generating those mo-
tions, are in the same ratio. On this point there is nothing to
add or to alter. If the concentric strata were in density recipro-
cally as the squares of their distances, and undisturbed, there
would be no phenomena; but it is the disturbance of that which
has been in a state of equilibrium (either by distance frem the
centre, or by the resistance of friction), which occasions the
sensible phenomena of weight, or of falling bodies.
I do not, however, consider that these observations conclude
the subject ; for [ admit, that all the circumstances which exist
among the parts of a sphere, moving in an orbit, the momenta
of whose masses in the concentric strata are equalized by a ro-
tary motion, as well as the effects arising from the centre of
density, not being the mathematical centres and also from ac-
cidental disturbances in the equilibrium of particular bodies,
merit the careful analysis of philosopical mathematicians.
At the same time, although the mathematical laws must ne-
cessarily be the same, it is not indifferent, in human inquiries,
whether physical phenomena are ascribed generally to gravita-
tion, of which nothing is affected to be known, or to motion, of
which we may not know the primary origin. We know, at any
rate, more of motion than we know of gravitation. Besides the
laws common to both, we know that motion is an accident of
bodies which gives them momenta, and causes them to change
their situations in space; and we know that some motions are
general, antecedent, or primary, and that others are local, con-
sequent, or subordinate. 1n the problem before us, we are there-
fore enabled to show that known effects are conseguences of se-
veral known motions, thereby attaining a degree of analysis, which
could never be effected, if we referred the same phenomena to
the general name of gravitation.
Conclusion. These, I believe, are the chief objections which
have been imagined and promulgated in opposition to a theory
which substitutes the known motions of Nature as operative
causes of certain physical phenomena, in place of an assumed
principle called gravitation, by which, false analogies have been
introduced into philosophy, and effects ascribed to a cause neither
proximate nor in contact. It may be difficult to analyse, in like
manner, the motions which produce al! the celestial phenomena,
or trace the sources of particular motions; and it may be im-
possivie for rian to ascertain aty other origin of motion than the
sublime cats oy Vases: bot we advance another step in hu-
man knowledge when we discover that the two-fold motions of
a planet are competent to the consolidation and unity of its
mass, and are eflicient causes, by means of which bodies removed
out of their equilibrium are restored to the mass.
XIV, On
[ 106 ]
XIV. On the Oxi-hydrogen Blow-pipe. By Mr. RoBERT
Hare, of Philadelphia.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Philadelphia, June 27, 1817.
Sir, — In is now almost fourteen years since you honoured
my memoir on the Supply and Application of the Blow-pipe with
a place in the Philosophical Magazine, vol. xiv. In that paper
it will be seen that the heat, produced by the ignition of the
gaseous elements of water, was employed by mein 1801-2, in fus-
ing or volatilizing the most refractory earths and metals. A sub-
sequent article, in the sixth volume of the American Philosophical
‘Transactions, mentions the fusion of strontites, and complete and
rapid volatilization of platinum. Yet Dr. Clarke has lately
published a paper on this subject, as if it were an original dis-
covery. I therefore inclose you a memoir of my friend Professor
Silliman, by which it will be seen how far Dr. Clarke can be
justified for treating his experiments as new. I hope you will
republish it. It is a simple act of justice, which I should hope,
‘as the editor of a scientific journal, you will render me without
hesitation. I request any fellow-labourer in the laboratory to
reflect on the injustice, which is likely to be done, to Professor
Silliman and myself, in having the facts mentioned by Dr. Clarke
as his own, quoted on his authority instead of ours.
I am, sir, with due consideration,
Your obedient servant,
Rospert Hare.
Experiments on the Fusion of various refractory Bodies, by the
Compound Blow-pipe of Mr. Hare. By BENJAMIN SILLI-
MAN, Prof. Chem. and Min. in Yale-College*.
A section of the Pneumatic Cistern of Yale College, with the
Compound Blow- pipe of Mr. Hare for burning Hydrogen
mingled with Oxygen Gas, is shown in fig. 1. (Plate II.)
References to the Figure.
. AAAA.—The pneumatic cistern, filled with water. For a plate
and full description, see the Boston edition of Henry’s, Che-
Inistry.
BA gas reservoir, of the eapacity of twelve gallons, filled
with oxygen gas, either by the action of the hydrostatic bellows
at O, or by a recurved tube passing from above through the
water, and hooked under B: parallel and contiguous to B, on
* Prom Memoirs of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences,
vol. i. part iii. 1813.
the
. On the Oxi-hydrogen Blow-pipe. 107
the other side of the cistern, is another gas reservoir; of the
same capacity, which may be connected with B, or not, at plea-
sure,
C.—The same, in every respect ; ouly C is filled with hy-
drogen by hydrostatié bellows at OO, or by a recurved tube, as
above. | :
D.—Copper tubes, half an inch in diameter, furnished with
stop-cocks at f, and inserted into the gas reservoirs B,C.
E.—Recurved tubes of flexible metal, furnished with double
screws at F, which connect them with a pair of brass blow-pipes,
cut off at G, and soldered to two strong cast silver tubes, which
screw, air-tight, into H, an inverted pyramidal piece of platinum,
in which two converging ducts as large as a pin are perforated,
forming a continuation of the tubes, and uniting in a common
passage, somewhat larger, just before their exit, at the common
orifice below. The subject to be operated upon is sustained by
charcoal, or forceps, and held by the hand, just below the orifice
in the piece H.
The gases at BC are under hydrostatic pressure, which is
easily recruited as the gases run out, either by throwing com-
mon air with the bellows into one of the spare reservoirs, or by
introducing more of either of the gases into the appropriate re-
servoir, and peculiarly of hydrogen, both on account of the
facility with which it is obtained, and because twice as much of
it, in bulk, is wanted as of oxygen. ’
The rapidity of efflux of the gases, and their due proportion,
are easily regulated, by turning, more or less, the keys of the stop-
cocks at f; and the effects of either gas alone, may be observed
by shutting the stop-cock leading to the other.
'- When the compound flame is desired, the hydrogen is first
let out and fired; the blaze should be somewhat larger than that
of a candle; the oxygen is then let into the hydrogen till the
effect is the greatest, which a little habit will soon ascertain.
The flame of the hydrogen is very much narrowed by the in-
troduction of oxygen, and there is no appearance of peculiar
splendour or heat, till some body capable of reflecting the light
and heat is placed in the focus, which is usually about one-fourth
of an inch below the orifice.
All the apparatus below FF is easily detached by turning the
double screws ;—the strong silver tubes are intended to prevent
fusion of this part of the apparatus, and to admit of connexion
with the platinum piece by means of a screw cut on the silver
tubes ; this obviates the necessity of using a solder, which would
be very liable to melt, and the platinum piece is, for a similar
reason, substituted for the silver cylinder originally used by Mr.
Hare, as experience has shown that these are liable to elise
0
108 On the Oxi-hydrogen Blow-pipe.
No flux or addition of any kin«d was employed in the following
experiments.
On the Fusion of various refractory Bodies by the Compound
Blow-pipe of Mr. Hare.
The philosophical world behold with pleasure and astonish-
ment the effects produced on the fusion and combustion of
bodies by a stream of oxygen gas directed upon burning char-
coal. ‘The splendour of these experiments arrested universal at-
tention; and Lavoisier, with his gasometer, was enabled in this
manner to produce a degree of heat surpassing that of the most
powerful furnaces, and even of the solar focus. Bodies which
no degree of heat, previously applied, had been able to soften,
now became fluid, and, philosophy appeared to have attained the
limit of its power in exciting heat; indeed, it seemed to have
advanced very far towards realizing the opinion, that solidity and
fluidity are accidental attributes of bodies, dependant solely on
the quantity of caloric which they contain, and that therefore
they may be supposed capable of existing in either of these con-
ditions.
Still, however, there were, iz fact, many important exceptions.
Of the primitive earths, Lavoisier had been enabled to fuse only
alumine—while the rest remained refractory, and seemed. fully
entitled to the character of infusibility, usually attributed to this
elass of bodies: mazy native minerals, and especially those which
are most distinguished for hardness, beauty, and simplicity of
composition, maintained the same character, and some of them
refused to melt even when heated with powerful fluxes.
The beautiful invention of Mr. Robert Hare of Philadelphia,
by which he succeeded in burning, with safety and convenience,
the united stream of oxygen and hydrogen gases, greatly ex-
tended our dominion over refractory bodies, and presented new
and very interesting results. Mr. Hare’s memoir, originally
communicated to the Chemical Society of Philadelphia, has been
some years before the public, and has been republished and
handsomely noticed both in France and England. Still, how-
ever, his results have not found their way into the systematical
books on chemistry, (with the exception of Mr. Murray’s sy-
stem,) notwithstanding that some of the European Professors
have availed themselves of Mr. Hare’s invention, so far as to ex-
hi it his most splendid and striking experiments to their classes.
The writer of this article, although fully disclaiming any share
in Mr. Hare’s invention, was early associated with him in his
experiments: they excited in his mind a degree of interest, which
led him to hope that they would be repeated and extended by
others; but as nothing of this kind has appeared in this country,
perhaps
On tthe Oxi-hydrogen Blow-pipe. 109
perhaps the follovving experiments may not be altogether unin-
teresting, especially as they were performed with an apparatus
of a construction. somewhat more simple than the original.
It will be necessary to recollect that Mr. Hare not only melted
alumine, which Lavoisier had done before, but also. selex and
Larytes, and by subsequent experiments he added strontiles to
the list of fusible bodies: he was inclined to believe that he had
volatilized gold and silver, a conclusion which was rendered
highly probable by his having afterwards evidently volatilized
platinum.
The experiments of Mr. Hare, as will appear below, have
been repeated by the writer of this paper with success; and many
other bodies among the most refractory in Nature have been
melted. For the sake of showing how far the experiments now
to be recited have affected our knowledge of the dominion of
heat, quotations, for comparison, will occasionally be made from
one of the latest and most respectable chemical authorities—
Murray’s System, 2d ed.
Bodies submitted to the Heat of the Compound Blow-pipe of
Mr. Hare.
PRIMITIVE EARTHS,
Silex—being in a fine powder, it was blown away by the cur-
rent of gas; but when moistened with water it became aggluti-
nated by the heat, and was then perfectly fused into a colourless
glass.
Alumine—perfectly fused into a milk-white enamel.
Barytes—fused immediately, with intumescence, owing to
water, as observed by Laveisier; it then became solid and dry,
but soon melted again into a perfect globule, a grayish-white
enamel.
Strontites—the same.
Glucine—perfectly fused into a white enamel.
Zircon—the same. /
Lime—in small pieces, it was immediately blown off from the
charcoal: to prevent this, as well as to obviate the suspicion
that any foreign matter had contributed to its fusion, the fol-
lowing expedient was resorted to. A piece of lime, from the
Carrara marble, was strongly ignited in a covered platinum cru-
cible; one angle of it was then shaped into a small cylinder,
about one-fourth of an inch high, and somewhat thicker than a
great pin: the cylinder remained in connexion with the piece
of lime: this was held by a pair of forceps, and thus the small
cylinder of lime was brought into contact with the heat, without
danger of being blown away, and without a possibility of conta-
mination: there was this further advantage, (as the experiment
was
110 On the Oxi-hydrogen Blow-pipe.
was delicate and the determination of the result might be diifi-
cult,) that, as the cylinder was held in a perpendicular position,’
if the lime did really melt, the column must sink and become, at
least to a degree, blended with the supporting mass of lime.
When the compound flame fell upon the lime, the splendour of
the light was perfectly insupportable by the naked eye; and when
viewed through deep-coloured glasses (as indeed all ‘these experi-
ments ought to be), the lime was seen to become rounded at the
angles, and gradually to sink, till in the course of a few seconds
only a small globular protuberance remained, and the mass of.
supporting lime was also superficially fused at the base of the
column, through a space of half an inch in diameter. The
protuberance, as well as the contiguous portion of lime, was con-
verted into a perfectly white and glistening enamel; a magni-
fying glass discovered a few minute pores, but not the slightest
earthy appearance. This experiment was repeated several times,
and with uniform success ; may not lime therefore be added to’
the list of fusible bodies ?
Magnesia.—The same circumstances ‘that rendered the ope-
rating upon lime difficult, existed in a still greater degree, with
respect to magnesia; its lightness and pulverulent form rendered
it impossible to confine it fora moment upon the charcoal ; and
as it has very little cohesion, it could not be shaped by the knife,
as the lime had been. After being calcined, at full ignition, in
a covered platinum crucible, it was kneaded with water, till it
became of the consistence of dough. It was then shaped into a
rude cone as acute as might be, but still very blunt; the cone was
three-fourths of an inch long, and was supported upon a coiled
wire.
The magnesia thus prepared, was exposed to the canal?
flame: the escape of the water caused the vertex of the cone to,
fly off in repeated flakes, and the top of the frustum, that ‘thus
remained, gave nearly as powerful areflection of light as the lime
had done: from the bulk of the piece (it being now one-fourth
of an inch in diameter at the part where the flame was applied)
no perceptible sinking could be expected. After a few seconds, ,
the piece being examined with a magnifying glass, no roughnesses
or earthy particles could he perceived on the spot, but a number of
glassy, smooth protuberances, whose surface was a perfectly white
enamel, This experiment was repeated with the same success.
May not magnesia, then, be also added to the table of fusible,
bodies? «
Yitria—was the only remaining primitive earth; but no speci-
men of it could be obtained.
Perhaps then we shall be justified in saying, in future, that the:
primitive earths are fusible bodies, although not fusible in fur-,
naces,
On the Oxi-hydregen Blow=pipe. TT!
naces, in the solar focus, nor (with the exception of alumine, and
possibly barytes,) even by a stream of oxygen gas directed upon
burning charcoal.
Platinum—was not only melted, but volatized with strong
ebullition.
VARIOUS MINERALS.
Rock Crystal—transparent and colourless. This mineral was
instantly melted into a beautiful white glass. It not only does
not melt in the focus of the most powerful burning mirror, but
it remains without fusion, at least when in the state of rock cry-
stal, in the still more intense heat excited by a stream of oxygen
gas directed on burning charcoal.” (Murray, ii. 261.) “It is
even imperfectly softened by the intense heat, excited by a stream
of oxygen gas, directed on the flame.” (of the blow-pipe lamp.)
—(Ibid. iii. 513.)
Common Quartz—fused immediately into a vitreous globule.
Gun Flini—melted with equal rapidity: it first became white,
and the fusion was attended with ebullition and a separation of
numerous small ignited globules which seemed to burn away as
they rolled out of the current of flame: the product of this fusion
was a beautiful splendid enamel.—* It is infusible before the
blow-pipe, but loses its colour.”— (Ibid. 518.)
_Chalcedony—melted rapidly,and gave a beautiful blueish-white
enamel resembling opal. “ It is infusible before the blow-pipe.”’
—(Ibid. 516.)
Oriental Carnelian—fused with ebullition, and produced a
semitransparent white globule with a fine lustre.
Red Jasper—from the Grampians, was slowly fused with a
sluggish effervescence ; it gave a grayish black slag, with white
spots.
*€ It is infusible before the blow-pipe, even when the flame is
excited by a stream of oxygen gas.’’—(Ibid. 519.)
smoky Quartz—or smoky topaz melted into a colourless glo -
bule.
Bery!—melted instantly into a perfect globule, and continued
in a violent ebullition as long as the flame was applied; and
when, after the globule became cold, it was heated again, the
ebullition was equally renewed; the globule was ‘a glass of a
beautiful blueish-milky white.
“The beryl is melted with difficulty before the blow- pipe alone,
but easily when borax is added.””—(Ibid. 511.)
Emerald of Peru.—The same ; only the globule was greea,
and perfectly transparent.
Olivin—fused into a dark-brown globule, almost black. “ It
can scarcely be melted by the blow-pipe without addition.” —
(Ibid, 534.)--.. 0 « : “piacht
Vesuvian
112 On the Oxi-hydrogen Blow-pipe.
Vesuvian—instantly melted into,a beautiful green glass. “It
melts before the blow-pipe into a yellowish glass.”— (Ibid. 534.)
Leucite—instantly fused into a perfectly transparent white
glass: the fusion was attended with strong ebullition, and many
ignited globules darted from it and burnt in the air, or rolled out
upon the charcoal and then burned, Were they not potassium ?
This stone contains full 20 per cent. of potash:—'This hint will
be resumed below. |
“It is not fused before the blow-pipe.’’— (Murray, ili. 534.)
Chrysoleryl—(Cymophane of Haiiy) was immediately fused
into a grayish-white globule. ‘It is not melted by the blow-
pipe.” — (Ibid. 499.)
A crystallized Mineral.—From Haddam, Connecticut; ac-
cording to the Abbe Haiiy, it is chrysoberyl; according to Co-
lonel Gibbs, corundum: it fused with ebullition and scintilla-
tions, and produced a very dark globule almost black.
Topaz—of Saxony, melted with strong ebullition, and became
awhite enamel. ‘It is infusible before the blow-pipe, but
melts when borax is added.”’—(Ibid. 498.)
Sappar or Kyanite—perfectly and instantly fused, with ebul-
lition, into a white enamel. ‘ It remains perfectly unaltered
before the flame of the blow-pipe even when excited by oxygen
gas.’ —(Ibid. 499.) .
Corundum—of the East Indies, was immediately and perfectly
fused into a gray globule.
Corundum—of China, the same with active ebullition. Corun-
dum “ is not fused by the flame of the blow-pipe on charcoal
even when soda or borax is added to it.”—(Ibid. 495.)
Zircon—of Ceylon, melted with ebullition into a white enamel.
“ Jt is not melted alone before the flame of the blow-pipe, but
if borax is added it forms a transparent glass.’”’— (Murray, iii.
539.)
Hyacinth—of Expailly, fused into a white enamel. “ It
loses its colour before the flame of the blow-pipe, but it is not
fused; it melts with borax into a transparent glass.’’— (Ibid.
540.)
Cinnamon stone—instantly fused into a black globule with
violent ebullition.
Spinelle Ruby—fused immediately into an elliptical red glo-
bule. ‘It does not melt before the blow-pipe, but is fused by
the aid of borax.”— (Ibid. 497.)
Steatite—melted with strong ebullition into a grayish slag.—
« It does not melt before the blow-pipe, but becomes white and
very hard,” — (Ibid. 482.)
Porcelain, common pottery, fragments of Hessian crucibles,
Wedgwood’s ware, various natural clays, as pipe and posi
clay,
ee)
On the Oxi-hydrogen Blow-pipe. ilg
lay, fire and common brick, and compound rocks, &c. were
fused with equal ease.
During the action of the compound flame upon the alkaline
earths, provided they were supported by charcoal, distinct glo-
bules often rolled and darted evt from the ignited mass, and
burnt, sometimes vividly, and with peculiarly coloured flame.
From the nature of the experiments, it will not be easy to prove
that these globules were the basis of the earths, and yet there 1s
the strongest reason to believe it; circumstances could scarcely
be devised more favourable to the simultaneous fusion and de-
composition of these bodies; charcoal highly ignited for a sup-
port, and an atmosphere of bydrogea also in vivid and intense
ignition ; that the oxygen should be, under these circumstances,
detached, is not surprising; but the high degree of heat and the
presence of oxygen necessarily burn up the metalloids almost as
soon as produced. If means could be devised to obviate this
difficulty, the blow-pipe of Mr. Hare might become an important
instrument of analytical research. ,
We can scarcely fail to attribute some of the appearances, du-
ring the fusion of the leucite, to the decomposition of the pot-
ash it contains.
This impression was much strengthened by exposing potash
and soda to the compound flame, with a support of charcoal ;
they were evidently decomposed: numerous distinct globules
rolled out from them, and burnt with the peculiar vivid white
light and flash which these metalloids eshibit when produced and
ignited in the Galvanic circuit. It is hoped that these hints may
induce a further investigation of this subject.
The experiments which have now been related in connexion
with the original ones of Mr. Hare, sufficiently show that science
is not a little indebted to that gentleman for his ingenious and
beautiful invention.—It was certainly a happy thought, and the
result of very philosophical views of combustion, to suppose that
a highly combustible gaseous body, by intimate mixture with
oxygen gas, must, when kindled, produce intense heat: and it is
no doubt to this capability of perfectly intimate mixture between
“these two bodies, that the effects of the compound blow-pipe
are in a great measure to be ascribed.
This communication has already been extended further than
was contemplated; but on concluding it, it may be allowable to
remark, that there is now in all probability no body, except some
of the combustible ones,'which is exempt from the law of fusion
by heat. If the primitive earths, and such minerals as several
of those which have been mentioned above, are fusible, no doubt
can be entertained that all other mixtures and combinations of
éarths are fusible also: for such mixtures and combinations are
Vol. 50. No, 232. August 1817. H known
114 Onthe Sleam-Vessel between London and Exeter.
known to be more fusible than the primitive earths; the metals
are more fusible than the earths; and the diamond, along with
carbon in its other purest forms, appears to be really the only
exception ; and it is probable that this is oniy a seeming one,
for it is scarcely possible to expose these bodies to the heat of
the compound blow-pipe, without at the same time burning
them up: could the heat be applied without exposing them to
the contact of oxygen, is it not probable that they also would
be added to the list of fusible bodies ?
Yale-College, May 7, 18.2.
To the foregoing (which has been printed from the published
Transactions of the Connecticut Academy) the following P. 8.
was added in manuscript:
«‘ P.S.—In subsequent experiments gold, silver, platina, and
most of the metals were not only volatilized but burnt with pe-
culiar flames.”
Some of my readers may be inclined to think that the facts
do not warrant all that Mr. Hare has stated respecting Dr.
Clarke’s claim as an inventor. On that point I shall give no
opinion ; but it should be observed that in Mr. Hare’s apparatus
the gases are not in mixture till they are brought together at the
piece H.
By Mr, Hare’s arrangement it is obvious that the operator is
completely secured against any danger from an explosion; and
it must appear equally obvious to any person who shall consider
the subject, that by having two condensing vessels for the gas~
reservoirs B and C, every result can be obtained which the united
gases from one vessel can possibly yield: for, by means of the
cocks at f the efflux of the gases may be regulated, as remarked
by Professor Silliman, till any required degree of mixture or effect
is produced.—A. T.
XV. On the Steam-Vessel proposed to be employed between
London and Exeter. By A CorresPONDENT.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Stra, — Havine heen long of opinion that vessels propelled by
steam may be used with advantage for the general coasting trade;
I have at length determined, in conjunction with’ some friends
who are of the same opinion, forthwith to establish a vessel for
conveyance of goods and passengers from London to this port.
The particular advantage such an establishment would have here,
over vessels of the ordinary description, is the degree of cer-,
tainty attending the setting out and arrival ; the want of which,
in
A Mathematical Question. 115
in the usual mode of water-carriage induces many tradesmen to
have goods by that more expensive conveyance, the waggon ; and
others are subject to much inconvenience by having their goods
detained for a month or six weeks, by the prevalence of westerly
and south-westerly winds. The only steam-vessels I have had
an opportunity of seeing are those used on the ‘Thames, which
being constructed for passengers chiefly, are not adapted for
goods, being deficient of stowage :—besides, from their having
such an extended width of deck, to cover the paddle-wheels, it
is conceived these vessels, or any enlarged vessel on such a mo-
del, would be unsafe in the Channel. 1 have therefore subjoined
a sketch of the plan on which it is proposed to construct our
vessel (see Plate II. figs. 3 and 4}. The form intended is that
which may be most approved for stowage and sailing, or rather
that will move through the water with the least resistance. The
paddie-wheels are proposed tobe placed at the stern, for the fol-
lawing reasons. First, to obviate the inconvenience of the in-
crease of deck by their being placed over the sides. Secondly,
by placing them at the stern, the diameter or breadth of the
wheels can be much increased without causing the roll such
ponderous weights would occasion when on the sides, Thirdly,
the machinery and boiler occupying the aftermost part of the
vessel, will not interfere with so much valuable stowage. F. ourthly,
the vessel will lie by the side of a wharf for the purposes of
taking in and discharging her cargo without injury to the wheels.
And lastly,—and which for this port, is a matter of more import-
ance than the preceding, having to pass through two locks of a
navigable river,—the paddle-wheels must ctherwise be contrived
to take off, to admit the vessel through.— My object in this ad-
dress is th gain the opinions of your more experienced readers,
and to adopt such hints.as may be gathered from others who
have made this subject their study.
I am, sir,
~ Your most humble servant,
Exeter, July 29, 1817.
——
XVI. A Mathematical Question. By A CoRRESPONDENT.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — Concinmane, how many able Mathematicians read
your truly scientific Work, and often correspond with you, it has
somewhat surprised me, that so few of them have appeared to
notice, and take a part in the elaborate and curious researches,
relating to Musical Intervals, which have been occasionally sent
to you for insertion, in your last 24 volumes, by Mr. Farey sen.
H 2 within
116. Literary. Hardships of practical Authors.
within the period of the last 10 vears; particularly since the
publication of Mr. Liston’s Essay, in 1812, and since the frequent
exhibition of his Euhermonic Organs, have given those experi-
mental and practical illustrations on the subject, which vipehaeh
were a good deal wanting.
In the hopes of obtaining answers from several of your Geka
spondents alluded to, 1 beg to propose to them the following
Question: which.I have been enabled myself to solve, principally,
through studying the paper inserted in your last volume, p. 4425
Viz.
What are the Ratios, Values (in Mr. Farey’s Netation), . the
Names, the Vibrations and the Beats in 1” of the three fol-
lowing ‘intervals, above Tenor Cliff C, viz. GY'b'9 F¥b4, and
B’e?
] am, your obedient servant,
July 26, 1817, Prito-Musicus.
P.S. It is a good rule, which I have observed Mr. Farey arfd
other correct Writers follow, of always (or mostly) defining or
expressing Musical Interv als, in more than one mode, for avoiding
mistakes or ambiguity, through errors of the press, or miscon-
vention. I will therefore here, although the literad designation
of the three required notes w hich are given above, are sufficient
to determine them; further mention, that their ranges or places,
ina sufficiently extended Listonian Tuning Table are, —12I11
—84V, +2111—37V, and III+8V, respectively: na I beg
to add to my Question above oy nosed; the further request, that
the answers thereto may, mathematically deduce these latter or
iuneable definitions of the Intervals, from their literal ones.
XVII. On the Cases of Injustice which Authors sometimes suffer
from other Writers, and from Annotators ; particularly the
late Mr. Jouw Wrintams » Author of ihe * Mineral King-
dom.” By A Correspon SDENTS
To Mr. Tilloch.
sr
Sir, — ¥ OuR pages, and those of every other independent
periodical Journal, contain frequent instances of living Authors,
seeing just occasion of complaint, om the svore of injustice done
to their literary labours, by other more recent Writers; and some- .
times also, these complaints are either preferred or seconded by
others, who have a personal friendship, or else a similarity of
thinking and feeling, with the writer agrieved: and not unfre-
quently, persons are seen standing forward as the advocates of
the reputation of Authors who are deceased, in cases where mani-
fest
Literary Hardships of practical Authors. W
fest injustice may have been done or attempted, on the charaeter
of works, whose Authors or their personal friends, can no longer
defend their writings, either as to the knowledge possessed by
the writers, or, as to the honesty, ability or care,with which their
sentiments were given.
In most instances, a feeling towards the support of undefended
merit, as last mentioned, issufficiently strong, to counteract and
expose the impreper designs or conduct of recent writers; but a
ase sometimes occurs, in which a person, not professedly a li-
terary character, composes a Work, towards the close of his life,
containing the resuits of his own laborious researches and ex-
perience, including perhaps, those of some of his friends also, in
some practicable art or useful science, the details and principles
of which he may have gone further fn developing, than was cur-
rent at the time, among the professed writers and Book-makers,
who were his contemporaries, and immediate successors: and
perhaps this person, may happen also, to adopt the expedient, at
ail times a hazardous one, cf being the publisher of his own work,
by subscription, without transferring to a regular publishing and
advertizing Bookseller, any permanent interest in its literary
success or general sale: in such last ease, it is not tmcommon,
that the Writer. should be able to print and give circulation only
to a limited number of copies, just sufficient to make his work
somewhat known, and began to be inquired after, when the
Author is deceased and the work oud of print, as is said, and no
longer to be procured, but accidentally in. the shops of second-
hand Booksellers.
After a period of frequent inquiries for a book of the above
description, it happens that some publishing Bookseller, with
or without the knowledge or concurrence of the surviving rela-
tives of the deceased Author, if he has any, entertains the design,
of printing a new Edition of the Book, which seems thus in re-
quest ; and in order to secure the chance of a more extended sale,
instead of searching for any surviving friends of the deceased,
who may be engaged in the same line of pursuit, or other per-
sons practised therein, who could supply the illustrative notes or
additions, which the further progress of knowledge since the first.
printing, may have shown to be necessary, in the opinions of such
persons, as were fully conversant in the practical pursuits and views
of the Author, and had visited the places he may have locally de-
scribed, and attempting no further alteration of his work :—more
probably,some learned Professor is sought for and engaged, in order
to give éclat to the matter, by his own splendid additions to the
new and revised Edition: these additions being perhaps, of a
kind, very different from, and very inferior perhaps, in point. of
H3 cou-
118. Mr. Williams, and his Annotator Dr. Millar.
consistency or practicable utility, with the original work, into
which they were thus to be foisted.
In this way it is plain, that the generality of the readers and
approvers of a Work, thus at second-hand, the original of which
they may have never seen, may have but inadequate notions,
of the real and comparative knowledge and merits of the de-
ceased Author, and his original work, and are thereby prevented
from discovering the full amount of injustice which the Annota-
tor or others, may have done the Author; and under these cir-
cumstances, considerable time may elapse, before any one stands
forwards, in such works as yours, or otherwise, to vindieate- the
deceased Author’s credit, and put the public more fully in pos-
session of the results of his labours.
I have thus far spoken generally, in order now to attempt to
apply a good deal of what has been said, to the case of the late
Mr. Jonn WituiaMs, a practical Miner and Collier, who in
1789, put to press in Edinburgh, near to which city he then re-
sided, the result of more than 40 years’ experience in his pro-
fession, and of unwearied research and inquiry, as to the Geo-
logical facts of almost every part of the British Islands, &c. under
the title of “ The Natural History of the Minerat Kinepom,”
&c. in two volumes, octavo.
Mr. Williams did not in his day, auy more than a great part
of the practical Miners, Colliers and Geologists of the present
day, sce, that any great good could result, from going into the
nice technical distinctions of Minerals, under a very: great variety
of genera and species, far beyond the purposes of useful Geology
or practical Mining (which Mineralogical refinements were be-
ginning to be fashionable about the time he wrote, and have since
greatly increased) ; such as could repay him for the labour and
research necessary for making these distinctions, or for the di-
version from his ordinary pursuits, of more practicable and useful
kinds, which such an application to technical mineralogy would
have occasioned.
Accordingly, most of those who have expected to find in Mr.
Williams’s Book, announced as above, any thing like @ minera-
logical System, or laboured technical descriptions of Minerals,
much less a Geological System founded on nice Mineral distinc-
tions, have been somewhat disappointed: the end and aim of the
Author, having been very different, viz. that of detailing in plain
and simple language, the chief phenomena of the Earth, re-
garding its Strata (those accompanying Coals in particular)
their contortions, dislocations, and interesting Veins (those con-
taining Metallic Ores in particular) Mountains, Volcanoes, &c. &c.
In the year 1810, a.second Edition of Mr. Williams’s Book
was.
Mr, Williams, and his Annotator Dr. Millar. 119
was printed in Edinburgh, “ with an Appendix containing a
more extended view of Mineralogy and Geology, by James Millar,
M.D.F.S.A.S, Lecturer,” &c. It appears from Dr. Millar’s
preface, that it was his intention at commencing the work, and
until near 50 pages of it were printed off, ‘to add explanatory
Notes to the original text of the Author ;’’ but then the plan was
changed, into that of giving Mr. Williams’s Work without com-
ment or illustration, merely divided in a more formal manner
into Chapters, and curtailed of its redundancies ; and the ap-
pendix, as a separate work ly Dr.Millur, was to be so enlarged,
as to oceupy all but the first 67 pages of the second volume:
making in fact, two distinct works “ independent, so that each
may be perused as a whole,” yet thus tacked together, rather
too much in the Book-making style*,
In several careful perusals which I have given this second edi-
tion of Mr. Williams’s Work, in order to comprehend and trea-
sure up the rich collection of practical facts which he has men-
tioned, and the many sagacious hints and suggestions which he
gives, on the objects of my favourite study and pursuit, I have
increasingly on every re-perusal, seen reason, to disapprove the
* In 1802, a Writer in England, Mr. John Mawe, eked out a meagre
Octavo, entitled “ The Mineralogy of Derbyshire,” by 24 pages, of what
he calls ‘ An Analysis of Mr. Williams's Work, entitled The Mineral
Kingdom ;” on the frequent perusal of which “account of Mr, Williams’s
Book,” I am unable to discover, any other motives or design the Writer
had therein, beyond those hinted at in the text, and to exult in his own
assumed superiority, asa technical Mineralogist, (or describer of, and dealer
in, hand Specimens), and to abuse Mr. Williams, most unmercifully and up-
justly, on the score wf confusion, and tedious prolixity in his Ideas and
Writings; in doing which, be has had the audacity to allege, at p. 178, that
Mr. Williams’s “real facts and observations,” ‘‘are buried in a mass of idle
declamation!;” again, in p, 184, that ** nothing can exceed the prolixity of
his declamations,” “ which rarely present one ray of sulid information !!;”
&c. &c.
For such conduct as this, towards his Author, it night have been ex-
pected by impartial and anprejudiced persons, that the Editor of Mr.
Williams’s 2d Edition, would tlicreia have administered, due castigation to
Mr. M.: that he would, on no account have oinitted, by notes, on the 6 or 7
passages (at the most, in Mr.Williams’s copious details) in which Mr. Mawe
has expressly contradicted any of the facts, stated by Mr. W.to bave vindi-
cated him (as iu justice he might, on most of them I believe), and to have
properly explained Mr. W’s excusable mistakes, on the others; such for
instance, as the mighty fault of sayiny,the granite of Strontian was gray, in-
stead of red /, &c.: it istoo evident however to me, that this was not done,
because Mr. M. and Dr. M., both entered on the critical examination of Mr,
W’s Work, without sufficient real, or practical knowledge, of most of the
objects on which Mr. W. had expressly written; and having very similar
feelings and intentions, each to raise their own reputation and sell their
Books, almost regardless of the injustice thereby done, to the memory of
Mr, W., or to the cause of scientific truth and improvement,
LONE
120 Mr. Williams, and his Annotator Dr. Millar..
tone of superiority which his Aunotator, as above mentioned,
seems to.assume, over Mr. W. in his various remarks, scattered
through the work; calculated, too evidently, for lessening the
Reader’s estimation for Mr. W’s knowledge and performance,
and exalting that of the Annotator’s own Appendix: which should
have formed a separate publication, and stood on its own ground,
not on the shoulders of Mr. Williams, as at present.
I do not wish to be understood herein, as entirely undervaluing
Dr. M’s performance, which certainly presents a very copious
and useful collection of extracts, of great part of what has been
detailed or written by Geological observers, in the Transactions
of Learned Societies, and in other works of recent date, with.
many of the Doctor’s own observations, the whole under such an
arrangement, as. would have done him eredit in a separate publi-
tion, and been, perhaps, in every way commendable: but in their
present situation, the great display made, of the technical know-
ledge of Minerals in general (the greater part of which, from their
scareity, are quite unimportant ina practical point of view, such
as Mr. Williams professed to take) and the almost entire absence
of proper illustrations, of the obscurities and defects of Mr.:
Williams’s text,on the score of technical Mineralogical knowledge,
which are so often alluded to, have certainly appeared to me, as
improper, and have done so to many admirers of Mr. Williams’s
work, with whom Lam acquainted. .
It was not until very lately, although frequently inquiring since
the year 1801, that I could procure a copy of Mr. Williams’s first
Edition, from which, and other circumstances I judge, that they:
must be very scarce. On perusing this copy, my opinion of the
impropriety of Dr. M. as the annotator of Mr. Williams’s Work,
has been considerably strengthened, by observing, that the whole
of Mr. Williams’s Preface, containing 62 pages of curious and
important matter, has been suppressed by Dr. M.!
What renders this omission the more questionable in its cha
racter, is, that although Dr. Miilar, like many others of the mo-
dern partizans in Geology (who are alluded to with just repre-
hension by one of your Correspondents, in the Note in p. 47 of
your Jast number) in pp. 560 and 565 of his Appendix, gives the
outlinesof Dr. Hutton’sand Mr. /Verner’s Theories,and intimates,
that these, divide the opinions of modern Geologists: yet he says
not a word, that Mr. Williams, on whom he had obtruded him-
self as an Annotator, had examined Dr. Hutton’s Theory, when
recently published, and after his own work was ready for the
Printer, and had in the latter 40 pages of his Preface (which
Dr. M. had suppressed) considered and pointedly refuted, most
of the leading tenets of this System!
If it should be stated in excuse of Dr. M’s conduct herein to-
wards
On Vegetation in artificial Media. 121
wards Mr. Williams, and towards Geological truth and impar-
tiality, that his wish was do exclude controversy, and merely
state facts and opinions, for the reader’s own decision; then it
should be rejoined, that he ought to have considered, ‘what he
has denominated chapter 3 of vol. i. (pp. 449 to 467), as
among the useless “ redundancies” of Mr. Williams’s Work, be-
cause expressly employ ed, in considering and refuting the Theory
of Count Buffon; in the same manner and on the same princi-
ples, as the refutation of Dr. Hutton’s Theory, which has thus
unfairly been kept back.
Conceiving, sir, that many of your Geological Readers, who
possess Williams’s 2d Edition, would wish to see the suppressed
Preface to which I have been alluding, circulated, and preserved
in your pages, in portions, as room from more important matter
may allow, I have sent you the Preface, and in case you oblige
me, by its insertion, | propose to seid you, occasionally, some
further particulars, calculated to set Mr. Williams’s labours and
his work, in favourable points of view; and am,
Your obedient servant,
Aug. 4, 1817. AN ENGINEER.
[The Preface of Mr. Williams, referred to in the preceding
article, will be given in subsequent Numbers. ]—Epiror.
XVIII. On Vegetation in artificial Media. By Mr.J. Acton.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — Ojsenvine some experiments in your Magazine for
last month, by Mr. J. Tatum, respecting the effects of vegeta-
tion on the atmosphere, I beg to call his attention to some
of my own, made several years ago, with the view of pointing
out the analogy between the germination of seeds, the vege-
tation of plants, and the respiration of animals; as also of ex-
amining a new theory of the forination of carbonie acid gas in
peculiar situations by seeds, plants and animals, then lately
published by Mr, Ellis in a small octavo volume; and which
experiments were published in the late Mr. Nicholson’s Journal
for July and October 1509. Although my subsequent experi-
ence has not led me to make any alteration in the conclusions to
which my labours at that time led me, I cannot help feeling consi-
derable diffidence with respect to them, from having since been
compelled by many unfortunate circumstances to relinquish in
a great degree pursuits so interesting and congenial to the
inquiring mind. I had pledged myself to follow up those
experiments by others particularly relating to vegetation, more
effectually
122 On the Geology of Northumberland.
effectually to have corroborated those already attempted; and
which pledge I had the sincerest intention of .redeeming, had }
not found an absolute necessity for directing all the power of
my facuities into other less important but more profitable chan-
nels. But at all events, as there appears to be a disposition evinced
by Mr. Tatum to pursue these inguiries, I eonsider it my duty
to point out to him what has been already done—not so much
under the ideaof my experiments being of sufficient consequence to
supersede his investigations, as of their being perhaps worthy to
be considered as a land-mark by which he may avoid some su-
perfluous trouble; and be induced, if he thinks proper, to take
some of the most prominent of mine as points whence to set
forward on a fresh career. I have not sufficient vanity to be-
lieve mine of any great consequence ; but as his pursuits in the
same path appear so nearly allied to those which so greatly en-
gaged my attention, I trust he will excuse my officiousness for
thus eagerly endeavouring to arrest his further progress till he
has condescended to give them a serious perusal. If the greatest
assiduity and accuracy may entitle them to notice, 1 feel con-
scious no pains were spared in these particulars; I only lament the
occurrence of those untoward events which induced me to relin-
quish their further progress, and I shall experience no small gra-
tification if they shall ultimately be found of sufficient conse-
quence to facilitate and shorten the labours of others wishing to
analyse and throw light upon similar subjects.
A friend of mine has lately presented me with two specimens_
of calcareous matter, taken from the bladders of two of his
horses after they had died from disease,—one weighing nearly
ten pounds, in an irregular form,—the other weighing about ter
pounds and a quarter, of a conic form. As soon as I can pos=
sibly find time for their minute examination, it is my intention ta
send you the particulars.
I am, sir,
Your most obedient servant,
Ipswich, Aug. 6, 1817. v J. Acron,
XIX. On the Geology of Northumberland. By N.J.Wincx,
Esq.
To Mr. Tulloch.
Sir, — In a memoir on the geology of Northumberland, Dur-
ham, &c. published in the fourth volume of the Annals of Phi-
losophy, Dr. Thomson makes the following observation :— In
the preceding rapid sketch I have taken no notice of small
patches of the newest floetz-trap which occur towards the north-
east
On the Geology of Northumberland. 123
east parts of Northumberland. I examined several of these
places about four years ago, and found them to consist of green-
stone rocks seemingly deposited above the independent coal _for-
mation. This is the case with the rock on which the castle
stands in Haly [sland. The basis of this island is limestone,
The sawie thing occurs at Bamborough Castle, and in severai
hills in the neighbourhood of Belford, These facts may have
some interest to the geologist, though I did not consider them
of sufficient importance to interrupt the general view of the
structure of these counties which I have now given.”
_ Though it may appear presumptuous to differ from so able a
geologist; yet i am led to think that had Dr. Thomson investi-
gated the rocks at Dunstanborough Castle, at Gunwarden near
Barwesford on North Tyne, but especially at Wratchiff Crag
~ near Aluwick, the stratification exhibited at these places would
have induced him to draw a different conclusion; for there he
would have seen the basalt alternate with the rocks of which the
- whole district is composed.
At Dunstanborough the cliffs consist of
1. Columnar basalt .. .. Sto 10 feet.
2: Handstoner” isc ows. 12feets
3. Shale (slate clay) .. =... 6 feet.
4. Basalt to below the water’s edge.
At Gunwarden—strata of dark-blueish-gray crystalline lime-
stone, from 3 to 4 feet thick, alternate twice with compact ba-
salt. This limestone contains a considerable portion of iron; and
in colour, lustre, aud the shape of its fragments, so nearly re-
sembles basalt as to render it liable to be mistaken for that sub-
stance, To the lime-burner it is of no use. In the neighbour-
ing rivulet casts of the Madrepora flexuosa, mineralized by flinty
slate, or more properly indurated slate clay, have been detected.
But Wratehiff Crag having been queried of late years to a
considerable extent, aud the different beds of which the hill is con-
structed laid open to view, strengthens the opinion that no floetz-
trap formation exists in Northumberland. The following section,
accompanied by specimens, was communicated to me by a friend
whose accuracy my be depended upon.
1, Compact basalt, imperfectly columnar .. 20 feet.
2. Indurated slate clay, resembling porcelain jasper 3 feet.
3. Enerinal limestone (containing also bivalve
shells) of a dark-brownish gray colour, glim- > 8 feet.
mering lustre, and splintery fracture .. 4.
4, Slaty marl .. eth eed ind Seen ual Sinebes,
5, Crystalline linisiane of a light blueish-gray
colour, glistening lustre, and fine granular $ 3 feet.
texture ee ef ee ee ee ef . oe
6. Slaty
124 On the Siudy of the Principles of Stratification.
Gli Slatyanadls ees 25. Ran ee Soon
7. Dark blueish-gray limestone, resembling the 3 feet
Gunwarden limestone 1s 2... es :
8. Disintegrated basalt with caleareous spar .. 1 foot.
9: Compact basalts) be ee oe ee ew? SMOG
10, Slaty marl—lowest.
Dip south-east at an angle of 8 degrees.
Before closing this letter, it will not be amiss to notice a few
phenomena usually accompanying basalt in this part of. the:
kingdom, which may in some measure serve to develop its:
origin. Limestone is often rendered highly crystalline and unfit
for lime, when in the vicinity of this rock, as is the case of
No. 5 and No. 7, but not No. 3 of the foregoing section. Slate
clay is turned into a substance like flinty slate or porcelain jas-
per, No. 2; and coal is invariably charred when in contact with
it. When basalt occurs in beds, its thickness varies much mere
than that of the rocks between which it is interposed, formmg
wedge-shaped masses rather than regular strata; and the sand-
stone on which it reposes is changed for some depth to a brick-
red colour; pieces of this description of soft sandstone, taken
from below the basalt at Bamborough Castle, broke into spheri-
cal fragments on being immersed. in water.
I remain, sir,
Your most obedient humble servant,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, July 20, 1817. N. J. Wines.
XX. On the Advantages that may be expected to result, from’
the Study of the Principles of Stratification ; with Remarks
on the proper Objects of Inquiry in this important Branch of
Geology. By Mr.Tuomas TrEDGoLD.
—_——.
Men have sought to make a World from their own conceptions, and to
draw froin their own minds all the materials which they employed; but’
if, instead of doing so, they had consulted experieuce and observation,
they would have had facts, and not opinions, to reason aboat, and might
have ultimately arrived at the knowledge of the laws which govern the
material world.”— Bacon.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — im consequence of the discovery of several facts which
tend to elucidate the principles of stratification, the science of
Geology has acquired an additional degree ef interest and im-
portance. Geologists have in a great measure abandoned their
wild and fanciful speculations ;—they have begun to make ob- |
servations, and to register facts respecting the present state of
the surface of the earth,—and instead of inventing hypothetical
solutions
On the Study of the Principles of Stratification. 125
solutions of the most apparent phenomena of its formation, they
now attempt to give an accurate description of its structure.
Such materials, at some future period, will supply a mind hke that
of Newton, with the means of establishing a correct theory; for
the present state of the carth’s surface, is certainly not suf-
ficiently well known, to admit of a satisfactory explanation of its
origin.
The knowledge of the relative position of the Strata which
form the external crust of the earth, is one of the most important
branches of this inquiry; but to render it more useful, there are
other chjects which should always be attended to in such re-
searches.
It has been observed, that a stratum does not always consist of
the same mineral substance throughout its whole extent,—or at
least that it often presents the same mineral elements in very diffe-
rent combinations and states; therefore, in a complete description
of each stratum, all its principal variations of position, of thickness,
of extent and situation of exposed surface, and of mineral character
should he accurately described. The petrifactions and shells it
contains should be ascertained; and of those that are peculiar to
it, correct descriptions should We given ;—the uses to which its
minerals are applied should be noticed, and the probability of
obtaining them in other situations, pointed out ;—the nature and
qualities of the soil on its exposed surface should be described,
and the best means of ameliorating or improving it, suggested.
The uses of such information—to the owner of landed property—
to the miner—the agriculturist—the engineer—the architect—
the manufacturer; and, indeed, to every branch of civilized so-
ciety, are too self-evident to need detail, and of too multifarious a
nature to admit of it here. They only require to be known, to
be fully appreciated.
In this as in other descriptive branches of natural history, a
concise mode of expressing the leading characters of each stra-
tum, will be necessary, by which they may be described with
brevity, accuracy, and precision; as by that means the labour of
comparing the facts of different observers will be materially
abridged, as well as that of describing them. To accomplish
this, it may he necessary to introduce some appropriate terms—
for all those which refer to hypothetical notions respecting the
mode of formation, should be carefully avoided ;—the use of
hypothesis is unquestionable, but its very nature render: s its lan-
guage unfit for descriptive purposes. Hypothesis may guide us
in our inquiries, and give a tenfold degree of interest to our re-
searches; but still it must rather be considered the instrument,
than the end of our labours. ‘To a candid inquirer after truth,
the danger of clothing his descriptions of natural phenomena
in
126 = On the Study of the Principles of Stratification:
in the language of hypothesis, must be very evident ; and the
more so, when he considers the narrow views on which hypotheses
must be formed, in the present state of geological science,
It may be difficult to form a regular and general principle. of
classification, independent of some hypoth esis respecting the for-
mation of the strata 3—a dificulty perhaps to be removed, only
by more complete information respectiug the stratification of
other parts of the globe: however, as far as relates to this island,
the strata might be arranged, according to the order in which
they follow one another, beginning at the highest in the series.
No doubt mistakes will sometimes occur, in assigning each stra-
tum its proper place in the series, but in the progress of the
science, tiese will be corrected.
The eeaiaiots of geologists is earnestly called to this, or to
some superior arrangenient of the British strata; for were such
an arrangement euce made, and a proper and scientific methed
of describing the phenomena adopted—the number of observers
would soon increase, and the knowledge of this important branch
of geology would make rapid advances towards perfection.
The landed proprietor will soon find it as much his interest, to
know the nature of the strata that form his estate, as to know
the number of acres it contains, and a correct mineral survey of
his property, will forin an useful and valuable appendage to the
plan of his estate. And in thus ascertaining the value of his own
property, he will have an opportunity of forwarding the progress
of science, by a udding the result of his inquiries to the common
stock ;—every mine that he opens, every shaft that he sinks, walt
either add additional facts or confirm those already known—even
in digging a well, semething worthy of note may be observed.
And should he previously have made himself acquainted with the
principles of stratification, he would then have the pleasure of
anticipating the general results, while the progress of the work
would enable him to ascertaén the accidental variations which
frequently occur,
But if the study of stratification afford pleasure and useful in-
formation to the settled individual; how much more must it af-
ford to the well-informed traveller 1—He will no longer need to
confine himself to hasty notices of those geological subjects ouly,
that are apparent to the most careless observer—a wider field
will open before him, and the structure and mineral production
of the country will form one of the most interesting objects of
his research. Other travellers have noticed such mineral pro-
ductions only, as were in use, or plentifully scattered over the face
of the countries they have passed through; but the traveller who
knows the nature and principles of stratification will be able, not
only to give mofe satisfactory information respecting the minerals
already
On the Study of the Principles of Stratification. 127
already known, but also to display the apparently hidden re-
sources of other countries, and to furnish those data, which: the
extended views of modern science have rendered necessary. ,
As the labour of gaining any new source of knowledge never
fails to bring with it its own reward, by a proportional increase
of the sources of pleasure, { hope an attempt to bring that of
the prince iples of stratification imto more general notice, may not
be without effect. It is a branch of knowledge, which, on ac-
count of its useful nature, is perhaps better calculated to become
popular, than any other. In proof of the truth of this remark
it is only necessary to say, that it includes the principles of the
important art of draining land;—that from it the probability of
obtaining certain minerals in certain situations may be inferred
from the nature of the superior strata, without the expensive
process of boring ;—that it is calculated to check the delusive
mining projects, which have ruined thousands, and at the same
time to encourage those which are likely to be attended with
success; that it also points out the best methods of working
new mines, as well as the most effectual means of extending old
ones, with security and profit. Iam, sir, yours, &c. &c.
London, August 11, 1817. Tuomas 'TREDGOLD.
P.S. Asthe recommendation of any particular branch of science
may seem imperfect, without saying something on the means of
obtaining it, I have subjoined the following list of works on the.
subject of stratification. Perhaps some of your correspondents
may think proper to extend it, with critical notices on the com-
parative merits of the writers.
Mr. Wm. Smith’s Mineralogical Map of England and Wales:
and several numbers of the works he is now publishing, to
explain it. ~
Mr. Farey’s Derbyshire Report.
Mr. Bakewell’s Introduction to Geology, 2d edition.
The articles ** Coal” and ‘¢ Stratification” in Dr. Rees’s New
Cyclopzedia.
Mr. Sowerby’s Mineral Conchology.
Williams’s Natural History of the Pe Ge Kingdom,—And
several valuable facts are collected,
Mr. Whitehurst’s Inquiry into the Original State and Forma-
tion of the Earth.
Mr. W. Forster’s ‘Treatise on a Section of the Strata, New-
eastle. 1809.
The Transactions of the Geological Society.
The 25th and following volumes of the Philosophical Maga-
zine, &c, &c. and The Monthly Magazine. p ley we
XXI. On
piderat
XXI. On the Work entitled Chromatics ;” or, An Essay ont
the Analogy and Harmony of Colours. By Mr. 'T. Har-
GREAVES.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — In your last Number you mentioned the publication of
“* An Essay on the Analogy and Harmony of Colours.”? On
turning over a copy of it, which I have now by me, I remark,
that not only are the coloured diagrams incorrect, but that they
are at variance with the observations which accompany them.
In pointing out this incorrectness, it is not my intention to de-
preciate the work, but to give the author an opportunity in a
future edition of rendering it more perfect, should he consider
my remarks deserving of his notice. My cebjection lies against
that part of his work in which he treats on the particular rela-
tions of colours. His first example of the white, black, and
gray is correct; and in the second, I merely cbject to the co-
lours employed for showing the three primaries, as not precisely
giving the tenes required:—the ultrantarine inelines rather to
purple ;. the Indian yellow to orange; and the red in its darker
shade to orange. But perhaps these colours have been adepted
for their durability.
My principal objection is against the compound or derivative
tints, given under the denominations of seconduries and tertiaries.
But before | proceed, it may be proper to transcribe two or three
passages from the work, which are in themselves perhaps unob-
Jectionable, but with which the examples given are at variance.
In section 8 he says: ‘‘-By the union of these three positive
colours (red, yellow and blue) in due subordination, they are
neutralized,” &c. — In section 24 “ Perfect neutrality depends,
however, upon « due subordination of the primary colours: in
which tue predominates in proportion to the depth of the eom-
pound, and yellow is subordinate to red,” &e. Again, in sec-
tion 21, ‘As the neutralization or negation of colours depends
upon the reunion of the three primaries, if is evident that each
of the primary colours is neutralized by that secondary which is
composed of the two other primaries, alternately; thus, blue is
neutralixed or extinguished by orange, red by green, and yellow
ly purple.” .
_ Considering all this as correct, and examining the coloured
examples of the secondaries and tertiaries, with reference to
these principles, they will be found to vary considerably.
_ In the first place, the secondary or intermediate colour ‘of
purple, ought to be such a combination of red and blue, in which
the blue should predominate, as when combined with yellow
should become completely neutralized. But on looking at the
Example,
On the Work entitled “ Chromatics.” 129
Example No.3, we find it besides being very inferior in bril-
liancy to either the red or the blue, considerably inclined to the
ted; so that it seems composed of red and a little blue, and
rather neutralized by yellow or black. By adding yellow, there-
fore, it would not become completely neutralized, but incline to
one or other of the tertiaries.
The orange likewise should be a compound of red and yellow, in
swhich the red should predominate; but in Example 4, it is found
{assuredly of the colour usually cailed orange) considerably too
much inclined to the yellow; so that the third primary blue, in-
stead of neutralizing, would convert it into an olive or broken
green.
The other secondary colour, green, in Example 5, is nearly
correct, except that it is rather inferior in brilliancy to either
the blue or the yellow,
I come now to the tertiaries, by which are meant a combina-
‘tion of two secondaries, so as to produce a colour in which all
the three primaries are united. By this combination itis evident
that an extensive variety of tones may be produced, according
to the different proportions of the two secondaries employed.
But the author means to select such an union of two secondaries,
as shall produce an exact broken colour of that primary which
enters into the combination of both the secondaries, Thus the
tertiary produced. by purple and green is required to be of a
broken or partly nentralized blue ; which will of course, as im-
plied in Section 22, be completely neutralized by orange. But
‘on referring to Example 6, we find that the author has produced
an olive, a colour in which greenish-yellow predominates; which
might be expected from the incorrectness in the tone of the pur-
ple not allowing a sufficient quantity of it to he used for giving
the tint required. This olive instead of being neutralized by
the orange would change into broken yellow. Here of course
the error is not confined to the coloured example, but the name
adopted shows the author himself to be in error. The other
two tertiaries are likewise incorrect,—the citrine being rather too
much inclined to orange; and the russet is more a broken
orange, thaa the partly neutralized red which it ought to be.
The remaining examples are, of course, infected with the same
errors, as being composed of the tints and colours already de-
scribed.
I do net at present enter into any consideration of the au-
thor’s ideas on the harmony of colours, as I have not yet found
Jeisure to understand and consider them. But as I was struck
with his adoption.of the double triangle for the purpose of illus-
tration, aud the general agreement of his ideas on colours with
my own, as inserted in your Number for March 1817, I was
Vol. 50, No, 232, August 1817. I tempted
130 ' Notices respecting New Books.
tempted to examine that part of his work ; the result of whieh
examination I here send you; and if you consider it, as T do, of
some importance to art, | doubt not of your admitting it to a
place in your valuable publication.
I am, sir, yours, &c.
Liverpool, Aug. 16, 1817. Tuomas HARGREAVES.
XXII. Notices respecting New Books.
An Inquiry into the progressive Colonization of the Earth, and
the Origin of Nations ; illustrated ly a Map of the Geo-
. graphy of Ecclesiastical and Atcient Civil History. By
T. Hemine, of Magdalen Hall, Oxon.
[Concluded from p. 72.]
ma
5 nq HE progress which we have made already assures us that
there are mountains so situated as Moses hath pointed out to us
—that these mountains appear to join the popular Ararat of
Armenia, or the Gordian mountains—that there are traditionary
reports of the ark having lodged upon the mountains of Ariana,
which are a part of the same tract—that there are, about those
paits, names which appear to ‘have generated from Ararat,
Gordus, and Cardu—all which considerations, though they have
a tendency to confirm the declaration of Moses, would be very
much too flimsy and insufficient, without some additional strength.
‘“* There are some evidences of the early population of these
parts, which may be mentioned as correlative arguments in fa-
vour of the general question. Megasthenes relates, that the old
inhabitants of India were divided into 122 nations, all originally
descended from the sons of Noah, before their journey to the
valley of Shinar.
** Nearly 2009 years before the Christian era, Semiramis in-
vaded these eastern settlements with an army of above 4,000,000,
if Ctesias and Diodorus do not exaggerate (though we can hardly
suppose they do not). Staurobates, the Indian general who
we are told met this enormous force, had, they say, an army
equally numerous, and obtained a complete victory over Semi-
ramis, who was slain in the fight. Deduct whatever may be
necessary to reduce these armies to credible numbers, and then
the pepulation of each of these adjacent countries ‘must. have
been, beyond a doubt, exceedingly great—probably, and almost
certainly, greater, at this early period, than any other contem-
porary nations of the whole earth. "
** It is probable, that had Armenia been the point of disem-
barkation, the adventurers would have reached Shinar in fo
SS
Notices respecting New Books. 131
less than a ceutury; as the routes along the Tigris and Euphrates
are so accessible and easy: and on the other hand, the distance
from the east of Persia, aud the time of arrival at Shinar, seem to
be much more proportionate than those of Shinar and Armenia.
** It is improbable that the fertile plain of Jordan would have
been destitute of proprietors for so loug a time as 450 years after
the flood, if the ark had settled so contiguously as the Gordian
mountains ; whence, the descent to Jordan would have been so
facile aud convenient; and we find (Gen. xiii. 11) that the whole
of this fine country was open to the choice of Lot, who took
possession of it without opposition: and here may the rapid
Progress of population be particularly instanced; for in a few
centuries afterwards, this became the most populous district that
the earth ever contained.
“* It is probable, that if Armenia had been the focal point, Eu-
rope would have been colonized before India; but it is agreed
beyond dispute, that India was planted much earlier than Europe ;
ud it is moreover certain, that the most eastern parts of Europe
were peopled before the western; which, had the migration been
from Armenia, would not have been the case.
** It is probable, had the first post-diluvian progress been made
from Armenia, that Syria and Asia Minor would have become
famous settlements before Egypt ; because, from their contiguity,
they could not fail of being soon discovered; and their inviting
aspects, both with regard to climate and fertility, would certainly
have insured the sojournment of whatever colonies chanéed to
come towards them —but it is certain that Egypt was overspread
with inhabitants Jong before Syria or Asia Minor; and it is
‘therefore probable, that the first Egyptian colony proceeded
coastwise from the Indus; whereas, had it passed from Armenia,
it would most likely have gone through some part of Syria, and
would, of course, have cecupied it in the way to Egypt; which
was not the case.
** Although neither the perilous arduities of mountains, nor
the terrible menaces of oceans, were insuperable and daunting
to the daring enterprisers; yet the even valleys and less rugged
tracks of rivers were most readily pervaded: and if we search
the surface of the whole globe, no spot seems to distribute so
many streams as that part of ancient Asia, whence they issue on
both sides of the mountains from Herat to Gaur, and run in all
directions towards the north and towards the south.
“¢ This sublime tract of heights, though in themselves steadfast
and durable as time itself, have, as every latter circumstance
rolled on and involved its forerunner, fluctuated in name with the
successive changes. By Megasthenes, Strabo, and Pliny, they
are called Paropamisus, from the ancient Persian province of
12 that
132 Notices respecting New Books.
that name. By Cluverius and Mela they are termed Taurus,
from their being supposed to be a continuation of that mountain
—by Aristotle and Quintus Curtius they are called Caucasus—by
Pliny, Cellarius, and Ptolemy, they are mentioned by the name
of the Iyrcanii Montes, from their passing through the country of
Hyreania—by Arrian they are designated as Mons Matieni—by
others they are since called Himmaleh and Hindoo Koh: but
we know that none of these is a genuiiie name ; indeed, they are
partial only, and such as have accidentally been applied to them;
as we learn from many of the Greek authors. But are we not
to suppose that these important mountains, before any Grecian
had existence, were denoted by some name? And is it not pre-
bable that they were known to the predecessors of Moses by the
general title of Ararat? Or, may we not justify the presumption,
‘that Moses, from an intimate knowledge of their character and
consequence, endued them with the appellation of the Mountains.
of Ararat ?
** Harcius denominates the whole range from the Euphrates
to the Ganges § the Montes Araratis.’
** Dr, Heylin condemns the opinion of the atk having rested
in Armenia, and supposes it more likely to have remained on
“some part of the Imaus mountains in India,‘which are somewhat
further rorth-eastward from the spot which we propose to con-
sider as the place of disembarkation.
** Dr. Stukely, who has investigated the subject with the sa-
gacity of a philosepher and the discrimination of a critic, con-
cludes the seat of the ark, after the flood, to have been rather
westward of the head of the Indus, and about the point of each
‘Tongitude to which the map of scriptural and classical geography
extends.
“ We might add numerous other conjectures of the same kind;
‘but the testimony of one comnientator who has patience to sift,
judgement to discern, and impartiality to decide, is of more
weight and value than a cordon of these who copy one another’s
errors: and as the purpose of this debate will require bat few
uiore corroborations and arguments, we shall, after advancing
one or two others which possess, in our opinion, the most con-
sequence, bring the question to an issue.
“« If we search to discover them, there may generally be dis-
cerned some extraordinary signs of divine omniscience and con-
trivance in every act of the Almighty Master ; and it is no less
than marvellous, that the grand streams of the Indus, Oxus,
Jaxartes, with some branches of the Ganges, and a great many
other rivers, derive their sources from about the central district
of the three prineipal divisions of the earth, and which is in that
part of ancient Aria, or Ariana, where we propose to consider
that
Nolices respecting New Books. _ 133
that the remnant of the wreck of human nature first released
themselves from the fabric which had saved them from the uni-
versal catastrophe. This situation perfectly accords with the
point to which Moses has referred us; and seems to have other-
Wise more probabilities in its favour than any other position
which we have seen laid down.
“It is not here intended to be insisted, that probability ought
to be received as proof: but problems of history so intricate and
inexplicable as the present, cannot be solved according to the
principle of mathematical demonstration: proceeding then from
probability to probability is the only way of getting towards the
fact ; and where numerous probabilities corroborate and support
One another, they are, or ought to be, esteemed almost tanta-
mount to physical truth.
“< It must be recollected, that the principal object to be es-
tablished from the present inquiry is, that some position, con-
sistent with the express asseveration of Moses, be considered as
the resting-place of the ark: and that the point to be assigned
must have a much greater eastern longitude than any part of
Armenia; otherwise it will be contradictory rather than con-
formable to what Moses has so unconditionally and uwequivo-
eally declared.
** That part of the ancient Persian province of Aria, extending
from modern Herat, or Harat, to the country of the Gaurs, or
according to the orthography of some, the Giaours, along the
tract of heights called Hindoo Koh, is the place to which the
investigation seems to lead, as having, according to numerous
probabilities and cireumstances, most likely been the receptacle
of the ark, after the secession of the waters from the face of the
earth :—but before we entreat the suffrage of our readers to this
opinion, we will abstract and arrange, in a brief form, some of
the chiefest motives which have contributed to the preference.
_ © First—Moses declared in perspicuous terms, that ‘ the ark
rested on the Mountains of Ararat,’ and that the emigrants
“journeyed from the east till they came to the Plains of Shinar’
—therefore, finding, as we do, that the mountains of ancient
Aria in Persia are, though at a great distance, connected with
those of Armenia, and that they are relatively situated with re-
gard to Shinar, as stated in the Scripture ; these were motives
which, in some degree, influenced the inducement to propose
them as the probable place where the ark rested after the flood.
‘* Secondly—It is not to be imagined that the emigrants pro-
ceeded in one direct and uninterrupted progress from Ararat to
Shinar; yet may some idea of the relative distance between
these places be formed by the portion of time which the
journey consumed, Aria is not objectionable on account of its
: 13 distance
.
134 Notices respecting New Books.
distance from or contiguity to Shinar, and the migration from
one to the other may very readily be supposed to have required
as much time as the Scripture signifies—this apparent propor~
tion of the time and distance was another motive that biassed
the proposal.
“ Thirdly—Some very judicious inquirers on the same subject,
dre decidedly of opinion that the ark rested somewhere along this
tract of mountains towards Tartary cr India; and their not having
all consented to one spot is no derogation to the main point ; for
they all propose a site eastward of Shinar, and therefore do not
deviate from the Mosaic text. Along this vast ridge, to which
all ascribe the memorable event, we, for the foregoing and other
reasons, consider Aria to be the mest probable point; and as
this opinion is not incompatible with that of Hareius, Ortelius,
Drs. Stukely and Heyliv, Shuckford, Wilson, and other eminent
authorities, we have, with greater confidence, been induced to.
propose it.
“* Fourthly—From not having been able to discover any other
primitive name of these mountains, it is conceived that Ararat
ought not to be considered as a term appropriated to any partl-
cular part, but to have been much more extensively applied than
has been generally imagined ; and from the many names attached
to places and things, in the vicinity of Aria, that appear to have
some affinity to the word Ararat, additional instances in favour-
of the proposal have also been deduced.
“ Fifthly—This Persian district includes the central point of
the three grand divisions of the earth—that is to say, of Europe,
Asia, and Africa—which, considered as so regarded in the om-
niscience of Providence, and thereby suited for promoting in
somewise the great scheme, was also additional weight to the
reasons for the proposal.
‘* Sixthly—From its seeming compatible with the incompre-
hensible wisdom and ceconomy of the Supreme to afford facility
at the outset to the ‘ overspreading of the earth,’ and as the
courses of rivers are most free from impediments, and supply one
of the most essential articles of human subsistence, it is natural
to suppose that the itinerant corps would take their routes along
the tracks of currents; and from the multiplicity of these which
are distributed northward and southward from the central accli-
vities of Aria, in a manner not to be found in any other region
of the earth, it was a consideration that powerfully augmented
the force of the other motives which induced the proposal.
** Seventhly—Herack, Yerac, or Irac Agemi, signifying the
country of the mountains, is southward of the Caspian Sea, about
ancient Hyreania. No part westward of this can be adopted as
the place where the ark rested, because the Scripture objects to
, ey
Notices respecting New Books. 135
it: any where more eastward along the same ridge may, because
the Scripture allows it. To say that the ark rested in Armenia
is therefore dissonant to the prescript of Moses, unless Armenia
in immemorial ages extended to Hyrcania, which is not alto-
gether improbable ;—but it is much more likely that Ararat was
of this, and even much greater extent, before it became con-
founded with Armenia; and the identity of these two places,
which ought to be distinct, has been very perplexing, deceptive,
and injurious. —Tenacious, therefore, of a perfect faith in Moses
and his interpreters, we must reject altogether the pretension of
the ark having rested northward of Shinar, and adopt the more.
congruous proposition of the extension of Ararat beyond Aria,
because there are many reasons to authorize it, and no substan-
tial objection seemingly to the proposal*.
** Lastly—-The tradition mentioned by Wilson, in his * Asia-
tic Researches,’ of the ark having lodged upon Aryavart may be
added, because it is perfectly consonant to Seripture, and be-
cause it is of as much consequence as a tradition can possibly be,
on account of its derivation from an indigenous source; whereas
every tradition relative to Armenia is from the report of aliens,
who were unacquainted with the teriitory for full 1700 years
after the event they presume to recount had taken place.
‘* Having now summed up the main arguments which have been
brought forward in this intricate inquiry; and which, whether
scriptural, theological, physical, geographical, etymological, testi-
monial, or traditional, have all one uniform tendency—and are
deemed, altogether, sufficiently cogent to authorize the conclu-
sion, that the country of ancient Aria, in the east of Persia, com-
prehends that part of the mountains of Ararat where the ark
vested after the great deluge, when Noah and his three sons, with
their wives, were all the remnant that survived to repropagate
mankind, we shall therefore hereafter consider ourselves warranted
in alluding to this as the focal point whence the whole earth has
been overspread with all the varieties that have existed, since
the deluge, of the human race.”
In the third chapter the author treats “ of the dispersion
and several settlements of the descendants of Noah, whom we
find enumerated in the book of Genesis.” The fourth, which
concludes the work, is entitled ‘ Considerations on the time of
* “ May not Ararat and Aria, also Arachosia, Arasacia, &c. have been
named to memoralize settlements of the descendants of Jerah, the son of
Joktan (called by the Arabs Arah or Yarah), as Moses informs us that the
Joktanites were stationed from Mesha (signifying a desert) to Sephar, a
mount of the East, which Wells places in Persia: and Eustathius, Hierony-
mus, &c. derive the Bactrians, Hyrcanians, Caramanians, Scythians, &c.
from the sons of Joktan.
14 the
136 Notices respecting New Boks.
the general dispersion, and the number of persons that had arisetiv:
—The confounding of language.—Genealogy of the Hebrew and.
Greek bibles examined.—Original nations founded subsequent:
to the first dispersion —The eurliest nations of whom there are:
written documents; and the results and connexions relative to,
them which may be derived from the foregoing sketches.” |
_ Mr. Heming’s valuable map, which should have a place in
every library, will be found a most useful auxiliary te all students,
of the Geography of Sacred and Ancient History.
—--——_—_
An Essay on the Nature of Heat, Light, and Electricity. By.
CHaries CARPENTER Bompass, Barrister al Law. 8vo,.
276 pp.
This is a work of uncommon merit, and will, we are confident,,
be well received by those whose minds have been properly disci-
plined by the strict laws of the inductive philosophy. The author.
in his preface apologizes for offering an essay on a branch of
natural philosophy, unsupported by experiments of his own s
but we think the chances are at least equal, that he would not
have produced a more useful work, had he had experiments of
his own to detail, and the results to explain. He has done bet-
ter in founding his observations on the labours which others, “ in
return for the honours so justly paid them, have surrendered for
public use ;”’—for, had he offered new experiments and new re-
sults;the attention of the reader (if net his own) would have been
diverted from the main object of the essay; or at least divided,
and the author would have produced less effect.
The work is divided into chapters, and these into sections.
Chap. 1, ON THE. Narure or Heat. § 1. On the Materiality,
of the Cause of Heat. § 2. On Attraction for Caloric, Latent
Heat,and Evaporation. § 3. On the Communication of Caloric.
§ 4. On the Reflection of Caloric. § 5. On the supposed Re-
pulsion between the Particles of Caloric—and the Elasticity of
Gases. § 6. On the Nature of the Attraetion for Caloric.—
Chap. 11. On THE Nature oF Ligur. § 1. On the Mutual
Relations of Light and Caloric. § 2. On the Reflection of
Light—and Visibility of Bodies. § 38. Gn the Component Parts
of Light—and the Causes of Colour. Chap. II]. On Execrri-
city. § 1. On the Formation of the different Kinds of Electri-
city. § 2. On the Nature of Electrical Attraction. § 3. On
the Franklinian Hypothesis: § 4. On the Cowbination of the
Two Kinds of Electricity, and the Identity of the Compound
Ethereal Fluid with Calorie and Light.
It would not be justice to the author to offer an analysis of a
work which is wholly argumentative: we shall therefore confine
ourselves chiefly to a statement of some of his conclusions :
‘© Caloric
Notices respecting New Books. 137
“Caloric (for the reasonsadduced) is certainly contained in every
body but the coldest, and, no one will hesitate to conclude from
analogy, in that also. If then there be in all bodies an invisible
imponderable fiuid or substance, capable of producing all the
_phznomena of heat, it is surely unphilosophical to seek for any
other cause of it, w here this exists.” The author therefore as-
sumes that this mater is the only source of heat. He employs
the name commonly used “calorie,” but ‘¢ without any intention
to express an opinion that it isa simple substance.” —*¢ If caloric
be matter, it possesses inertia; andc onsequently,w when once with-
out taphion. unless acted on by some other body, it would re-
main for ever at rest.’’—** The only powers by which matter
unaided can act upon matter, are attraction and repulsion.”—
Opposite powers in similar bodies where one is sufficient are re-
jected in sound philosophy;—but we cheat ourselves with terms,
What is *‘ radiation” but another name for repulsion?’’+—“‘The
law is universal, that all bodies attract caloric—but the degree in
whick they attract it is different in different circumstances.”—
<* That which has been called latent heat is only the effect of
an increased exertion of the attraction for caloric, produced by
the modifications of the attraction of cohesion.’
For the reasons stated by the author, “ caloric must necessarily.
be imponderable.”—Though the passage of caloric is produced
simply by attraction, the phanomena are modified by circum~.
stances. ‘‘ Motion is given to caloric at its issuing from the
heated body. But the attracting power continues tq operate on
the caloric as it proceeds, and with a force increasing as it ap-
proaches the attracting body; consequently the motion is con-
tinually and increasingly accelerated. The ray strikes therefore
upon the attracting hody, with a force greater than the then
acting attraction, by the sum of the force of all the attraction
preceding. Suppose the body attracting the caloric to be per=
fectly hard and impenetrable, and the ray would rebound or
be reflected; the then exerted attraction which alone would tend
to continue it in contact, being so evidently less than the force
of the attraction accumulated through its whole progress. Al-
though no body is impenetrable to caloric, it is generally ad-
mitted that the particles of every body are so. All the caloric
therefore, whicl should not pass between the particles, but strike
immediately on them, would be reflected as though it impinged.
on a body perfectly hard and impenetrable. _ Accordingly, it is,
found by experiment, that a very large portion of caloric is re-
flected from some bodies to which it is attracted. Metals par-
ticularly, attract caloric with considerable force, in proportion to
their volume ; but when highly polished, a very small part is able
: to
138 Notices respecting New Books.
to penetrate them. Suppose then a plate of polished metal, to
attract caloric from a distant object. The particles of calorie
will strike upon its surface, but the greater part will be unable
to enter it. That part of the ray of calorie therefore, whieh
cannot penetrate, impinging upon the polished metal with a
force greater than the attraction at the surface, and its elasticity
being perfect, it will rebound or be reflected, with a force equal
to the excess ; the attraction acting pon it on its return, with
acontinually decreasing, retarding power. If, however, another
body be placed so as to exercise its attraction in the course of
the reflected ray, the retarding attraction will be opposed by the
force of that attraction, and the course of the returned ray will
be continued. If the heated body be placed in the focus of a
concave metallic mirror, the caloric would be attracted by it,
and almost the whole quantity attracted, would be reflected from.
its polished surface in parallel lines. The metal, however, does
not act with an equally retarding attraction upon the ray of ca-
Toric, because a concave mirror will always attract with the
greater power, objects in the line of its focus. This will be very
evident, if that ray be considered, which impinges upon the ex-
treme circumference of the mirror, when it will be perceived,
that on its return, at the same distance from the part on which
it struck, it will be much less under the influence of the attrac-
tion of the mirror, than in the heated body situated in the foeus.
This difference of attraction must have a very considerable
effect ; for 2 sinall force will convey a ray of caloric to a great
distance, as may be easily imagined from its usual wonderfully
rapid motion, And if a small direct force be sufficient, a small
excess over a counteracting force is equally effectual. If the
retarding attraction therefore, of the first mirror, with all its op-
posing circumstances, be but in a smal degree less than its ac-
celerating attraction, caloric may be conveyed to a considerable
distance. But the small force with which the caloric passes
from the mirror, beyond the distance of the heated body, being
ouly the excess of the direct over the retarding attraction, does
not lessen the quantity, in the same degree, as it would if it:
arose from a small power of attraction. The quantity passing
is that which is attracted by the mirror from the heated body,
with the deduction of that quantity which the mirror itself re-
tains, and that which will be retained by the attraction of the
atmosphere, and other such circumstances. Ifa second mirror
be then placed opposite to the first at a moderate distance, the
rays will impinge upon it, and most of them be reflected to its
focus. The second mirror will not only reflect the rays which
strike upon it, it will also assist their progress. by its own attrac-
tion
Notices respecting New Books. 139
tion for them; and if its attraction should be great, it would
affect that of the first mirror. If, for instance, a piece of ice be’
placed in the focus of the second mirror, the ice will rapidly
absorb the rays of caloric, and attract the caloric from its sur-
face. This will increase the attraction of that mirror, and con-
sequently increase the rapidity, and the force of the whole pro-
cess. The surface of the first mirror will have its attraction
increased, and the temperature of the heated body will more
rapidly fall. The effect of a single mirror in reflecting caloric,
passing from a body placed opposite to it, at a moderate distance,
may be explained upon the same principles. ‘The calorie in that
instance would be simply attracted by the mirror, and reflected
directly to its focus, and would raise a thermometer placed there,
with a power greater than without the mirror, in proportion to
the concentration of the rays. The same laws which exist in
other cases in the attraction of caloric from body to body, re-
gulate its conveyance in these cases from the heated body to the
mirror, between the two mirrors, and from the second mirror to
the colder body ;—the mirror, ouly being required to be com-
posed of a substance which attracts caloric, without readily per-
mitting its entrance into it.’
The author next examines the supposed epider between the
particles of caloric, and the elasticity of gaseous bodies. The
increase of the volume of bodies by the addition of another sub-
stance—even if that substance be caloric—is what ought to take
place, and furnishes no proof of the existence of repulsion. Calori¢
causes not repulsion in gases, but expansion ; and they obtain
or retain the substance which causes this expansion by attrae-
tion. We have no evidence of the existence of a power of re-
pulsion.
All solid bodies when raised to a certain temperature become
luminous. Light is communicated with caloric, and in some
proportion to it. It must be conveyed either by some affinity
which it has for caloric, or all bodies must have an attraction for
light, in some proportion to that which they have for caloric.
The latter is the more probable hypothesis. Bodies are not
Juminous by reflected, but by emitted, light ; and they emit it in
consequence of the attraction of some other body: if emitted
directly to the eye, “ it must prebably be by the attraction of
the eye. Nor is it probable that the quantity of light required
for vision, can bear more than a very minute proportion, to that
emitted from a heated body. It is probable therefore, that, what-
ever relation light may have to caloric when bodies are luminous,
the light which enters the eye must do so in the same manner
and be governed by the same laws as the caloric. But if light
be capable. of producing expansion, and be attracted, and i
taine
140 Notices respecting New Books.
tained by all bodies in the same manner and proportions, as
caloric, what difference can we state as existing between them,
except that motion, by which, whenever possessed by caloric,
bodies are rendered visible ?”’
“ Bodies are luminous by light emitted: they are vistble by
light reflected from them.’’—“ Ifa red-hot ball be placed in
the focus of a concave mirror, both the light and the caloric will
be reflected by the mirror, and may be collected by an opposite
mirror and again reflected, in the same manner as caloric has
been before described.” —* Bodies are seen by the light which
they themselves attract.”’ In preof of this—‘‘ their colour arises
from the nature of the light which impinges on them. Thus
a coloured ray, separated by the prism, or other meaus, gives its
own hue to every object on which it is thrown. If therefore
bodies had no influence in regulating the nature of the ray of
light which should approach them to be reflected to produce vi-
sion, their colour would always depend upon, and vary with,
their situation. This, however, i is shown by every moment’s ob-
servation Hot to be the fact. The experiments last referred to,
are directly adverse to the theory suggested by Sir Isaac Newton
on thé subject. He supposed, that all the rays that fell upon any
body might be absorbed, except that part which formed its co-
lour ; and the reflection of that part of the ray, rather than any
other, he suggested, might arise from the di fference in magnitude
of the particles of light. If this hypothesis were just, a sepa-
rated coloured ray ought to be wholly absorbed by every body
not of the same colour, instead of giving them a tinge unnatural
to them. Upon that theory too, no part of a ray of light ¢ould
be reflected more than once between bodies of different colours ;
and every kind of body, except that which absorbed the smallest
particles, would reflect, on account of their magnitude, smaller
particles than those which it received. The division of the solar
ray, however, by that truly wonderful man, has been the chief
discovery yet made respecting the nature of light, and the most
probable guide to all others which may be made in future.”
In the third section of Chap. II. the aim of the author is to
show that light is a compound ethereal fluid composed of only
two simple fluids, combined in different proportions according to
circumstances : and that caloric is another modification of the
same compound ethereal substance. We cannot convey an ade-
quate idea of the arguments by which this is enforced, but by in-
serting it entire, which we shall do as soon as we can make room
for it.
On Electricity, the conclusion of the author is, that the two
kinds of electricity which are known by the names of negative
and positive are, in their combined state, identically the same
fluid
pe
Notices respecting New Books. . ~ 141
fluid with calorie and light: but for the reasoning by which he
supports this opinion we must refer our readers to the work it-
self.
Under the title “ Conciusion,” the author proceeds to con-
sider the “ effects of magnetism, which bear so near a resem-
bjance to those of electricity, as to leave little doubt that the
causes must be very similar.”’ The explanations offered, assume
that there are two ethereal fluids—as in electricity—inferred
from *¢ incontrovertible experiment.”
The following works have just been published:
The Principles and Application of Imaginary Quantities; to
which is added some Observations on Porisms, being the first of
a Series of original Tracts on various Parts of the Mathematics.
By Benjamin Gompertz, esq.
An unlimited Daily Calendar, serving for every year, before
and after the Christian zra, both for the old and new styles. By
J. Garnett.
A Treatise, containing the results of numerous experiments
on the preservation of timber from premature decay, and on the
prevention of the progress of rottenness, when already com-
menced in ships and buildings, and their protection from the
ravages of the termite, or white ant; with remarks on the means
of preserving wooden jetties and bridges from destruction by
worms. By William Chapman, M.R.I.A. Civil Engineer, &c.
Mr. Thomas Forster has just published a Sixth Edition of his
Observations on the Natural History and Brumal Retreat of the
Swallow ; illustrated by fine engravings on wood, by Willis, and
interspersed with Anecdotes. ‘To which is added Extracts from
a Journal of Natural History, and a Catalogue of Birds which are
found in the Island of Great Britain.
He has likewise published Observations on the Casual and
Periodical Influence of Atmospherical Causes on the Human
Health, and Diseases, particularly Insanity; with a Table of Re-
ference to Authors who have written on Epidemical and Periodi-
cal Diseases. This work is illustrated by some novel cases, and
the author endeavours to place the periods of insanity and other
disorders of the brain and nervous system in the most insportant
point of view, from the necessity of beginning the curative pro-
ceeding at particular stages of the disorder. He classes the at-
mospherical influence into two sorts: 1. That which appears
casual or happens at uncertain periods, exciting epidemics and
other atmospherical complaints. 2. That which has observ-
able periods: — this he subdivides into annual, monthly, and
daily periods. He notices also certain other periods which be-
Jong exclusively to particular diseases. The tracts interspersed
with
142 - Notices respecting New Books.
with anecdotes, and concludes with some observations on: Sui-
-cide, which place that crime in a new point of view, considered
as frequently resulting from a slow and often unperceived sort of
insanity.
Mr. William Phillips, of Tottenham, has pay a small
work on Astronomy for those unacquainted with the Mathema-
tics. He therein mentions that a work on Meteorology is forth-
coming from the pen of Mr. Luke Howard.
Several more works from Dr. Spurzheim are expected from
Paris in the course of a short time to be published in England.
Decorative Priiting.—It is now some time since Mr.Wilham
Savage issued Proposals for publishing Practical Hints on De-
‘corative Printing, illustrated with fac-similes of drawings printed
in colours by the type-press.. The preparations for this singular
and unique publication are, we are happy to say, in a state of
great forwardness. We have seen some of the embellishments,
imitations of water-colour drawings, so close as not to be a
stinguished from real drawings. They are produced by the ap-
plication of various tints by means of a succession of blocks, so
managed as to produce all the gradations of light and shade,
without the least harshness or confusion. By this means the
finest drawings may be multiplied to an inconceivable extent—a
desideratum which promises to be of the greatest advantage to
science, especially in all the different departments of natural
history; putting it within the power of a traveller, at a compa-
ratively small expense, to lay before his readers correct repre-
sentations of the various objects with which it may be desirable
_ to illustrate his work. But these, though important objects, are
in one sense but secondary in Mr, Savage’s work. . He not only
shows by his own specimens that all this is practicable; but he
gives the necessary instructiens to enable others not only to ex-
ecute and apply. the different blocks, but to prepare all the va-
rious inks and tints necessary for these and for every species of
Jetter-press printing. On this point the instruction, to be com-
muuicated is most important, as he has brought to perfection
the art of making printing-inks without the least particle of oil
entering into their composition, or any thing that can sink into
the paper, or spread from the impression and discolour the paper.
This is an object of the greatest value; for numerous publica-
tions, on which every degiee of ditbention has been bestowed by
the printer, are often rendered of comparatively little value, in a
short time, by the discoloration of the paper occasioned by the
spreading of the oil, We are sorry to observe that Mr. Savage
has limited his impression to what we consider as too smalla
number for a work of so much value, 100 large (imperial 4to),
and 250 small (demy 4to): for, as the blocks are all to be de-
stroyed
The Davy. 143
stroyed as soon as the work is printed, many who may wish at-
‘terwards to possess a copy, and to whom it might prove highly
serviceable, must be disappointed.
New Variation Chart.—All the variation charts hitherto pub-
lished, have been only transcripts of Dr. Halley’s original chart,
with few corrections for the change of variation since his time,
and none of them extending beyond the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans. Navigiators have therefore long regretted the want of an
accurate variation chart, comprehending the whole circuit of the
navigable ocean and seas of our globe. To supply this want,
Mr. Thomas Yeates has, with much labour and care, constructed
@ variation chart of all the navigable oceans and seas between
latitude 60° north and south, from accurate documents obtained
of Spanish surveys in the Pacific Ocean; journals at the Hydro-
graphical Office, Admiralty; and at the East India House; col-
Jated with tables of the variation recently formed from the ob-
‘servations of different navigators. This chart is delineated on
“a new plan, all the magnetic meridians being’ drawn upon it
throughout, for every change of one degree in the variation; and
it will be elucidated with explanatory notes, and a brief state-
ment of the late discovery of an aberration in the variation, re-
sulting from the deviation or change of a ship’s head from the
‘magnetic meridian, accompanied by the rules invented by the
late Captain Flinders for correcting the same. It is to be pub-
lished by subscription (price half-a-guinea) at Messrs. Black,
Parbury, and Allen’s, No. 7, Leadenhall-street; Mr. E. Trough-
ton’s, No. 136, Fleet-street; and Mr. Bates’s, Poultry.
XXIII. Intelligence and Miscelianeous Articles.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sin, — I BEG to add something explanatory relative to an ex-
pression of mine in the communication you were pleased to in-
sert in your last Number, I said that the safety promised by
‘the * Davy’ was questioned by those “ who ought to have known
better.” Certainly there never was any thing more unphiloso-
phical than the opposition it met with from them, and this even
continued after it had been proved secure in the mine itself.
Some raised their voice against it who never saw it, and had only
heard of it through the medium of imperfect description. Others
had seen it, but such had never made the experiment, and they
yet rudely questioned its efficiency. Others still more daring,
subjected it to experiments totally unconnected with the phe-
homena of the mine; and, determined to pervert its value, So
a false
H4 Poison of the Viper:x—Corrosive Sullimate.—Vegetation.
a false estimate of its merits. Such is literally a portraiture of
the character of the opposition made to the introduction of the
safety-lamp. I submit it to the liberal and enlightened mind,
whether it would not have begn more philosophical to have first
_proved whether this instrument, introduced with such important
recommendatious, was really so wondrously endowed, and then
to have given their opinion on its value or demetits?
Having paid considerable attention to the action of vegetable
and animal poisons on the system,—the article which appeared
in your penultimate Number, On the Poison of the Viper, could
not fail to interest me. I have long believed that azimal poisons
could be received into the system without injury, and that to
produce their proper effect they must be introduced into éhe cir-
culation. The conclusions of the paper in question are beauti-
fully corroborated by the following extract from a letter to me,
by Mr. Campbell, the African traveller: “ The Hottentots be-
lieve, that if they swallow the serpent’s bag of poison, a sting or
bite from: a serpent will do them no harm. Several of my
Hottentots assured me they had done it ;—one, who asserted it,
was a Christian, who I think would hive sooner submitted to
have been torn to pieces by a tigers than to have uttered a deli-
herate lie; so I fully credit it.’
The article in Dr. Thomson’s Annals for last month, On the
Test for corrosive Sublimate, &c. calls to my mind a very ex-
cellent and delicate one for the detection of mercurial salts —
Rub a little corrosive sa!t or calomel on a piece of silver, or suf-
fer a drop of a solution of muriate of mercury to rest upon it ;
a stain of a coppery colour will be left, and this, after a very
high degree of dilution.
If I might be permitted to remark on Mr. Tatum’s Experi-
ments on Vegetation, I would say that they are liable to as many
and as great. objections as any other that I have seen detailed.
They were subjected to a confined instead of a free atmosphere,
and to mercurial etfluvia—the temperature of the included me-
dium was unnatural, and they would be excluded from those
thousand sources of vicissitude which constitute the spring of all
their beauty. I shall still hold unchanged the opinion I have
long maintained as the result of direct experiment ; namely, that
the quantity of carbonic acid evolved by plants will bear but a
pitiful proportion to the floods of oxygen poured out upon the
-atmosphere by the exercise of the vegetative functions—My
mind therefore rests contented on the experiments of Priestley
and Ingenhousz since corroborated, in contradiction to those of
Ellis and Tatum. These observations will receive additional
weight from the following deductions. It is notorious that oxy-
gen is evolved from plants during the stimulus of light, and that
: vegetation,
~
Blow-pipe.—Galvanic Troughs. 145
vegetation will continve some time healthy in an atmospheré of
carbonic acid gas. That the vegetable functions act differently
from those’of “animals, is evident from the fact, that until the
oxides of iron are /igalthful to the animal ceconomy, they are
destructive to the process of vegetation. If the carbonic acid
gas was at ail equivalent to the oxygen set free, whence comes
the carbon which builds up the curious structure of the plant?
The partial quantity of carbonic acid which plants respire, 1s
evolved during night; and this being condensed by the cool cf
the evening, and mingling with the dews of this season of repose,
will not deteriorate the atmosphere, but be absorbed by the soil
on which it falls, and minister anew to the requirements of the
plant. Besides, in winter, the plant being denuded of its foli-
age has its inspiratory and expiratory organs comparatively
suspended ; while the period when these powers are uncontrolled
and most active is marked by a much longer sojourn of the sun
above the verge of the horizon. And J may add in conelusion,
the sentiment of Brisseau Mirbel: “* in Europe, while our vege-
tables, stripped by the severity of the season of their foliage, no
longer yield the air contributing to life, the salutary gas is borne
to us by trade-winds from the southernmost regions of America.
Winds from all quarters of the globe intermingle thus the various
strata of the atmosphere, and kvep its constitution uuiform in
all seasons and in all elevations.”
Being in the habit of frequently experimenting with the blow-
pipe of condensed oxygen and hydrogea, Dr. Clarke’s late com-
munication in Dr. Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy afforded me
particular interest. Besides oi] from its trauquil ebullition af-
fording no index of safety, the disadvantage pointed out is as
unexpected as important. During my course of chemical lec-
tures at Greenock, | used water in the safety cistern, and my
experiments were splendid and imposing. In the use of this
instrument at Paisley, in my late lecture, the illustrations were
feeble in effect and unimposing, and I have often since wondered
at the circumstance ;—now at this time [ used oz instead of wa-
ter, and Dr. Clarke has fortunately solved the question. It ap-
pears then that o// will never do. “a
I may conclude these miscellanea by adverting to a very cu-
rious circumstance which occurred to me here during my lecture
on galvanism. 1 used three porcelain troughs with triads upon
the principle of Dr. Wollaston. The fluid medium employed
was diluted nitric and muriatie acids. I had omitted inad-
vertently the beautiful experiment of the ignition of platinum
wire, until the action of the troughs was so feeble that it would
not affect a hair’s breadth of the metal. I immediately pro-
posed, by way of experiment, to withdraw the plates from the
Vol. 50, No.232, August 1817. K cells,
146 : Water-Spout.
cells, and try the effect of a few minutes’ exposure to the atmo»
sphere:—the effect was singular and interesting: for when the
plates were returned , upwards of six inches of the platinum wire
were instantly exalted toa WHITE HEAT. This impor teu result
will immediately bring to your recollection some analogous ex-
periments of Mr. Parretty j Jun. ; and it follows that | by the appli-
cation of mechanism to raise and lower the plates*, we can at
pleasure renew if not increase. the action, without additional
acid. | have frequently repeated this since, and always obtained
an increased‘action. Your obedient humble servant,
Whitehaven, Aug. 18, 1817. de Monnaws
WATER-SPOUT.
It happened to the editor of the Monthly Magazine, on the
27th of June, about seven in the evening, to witness the forma-
tion, oper ate and extinction of what is called a water-spout ;
a phenomenon which in all ages has puzzled philosophers and
encouraged the superstition of seamen and the vulgar. He was
in the house north of the chapel at Kentish Town, and his at-
tention was drawn to a sudden hurricane which’ nearly tore up
the shrubs and vegetables in the western gardens, and filled the
air with leaves and small collections of the recently cut grass.
Very dark clouds had collected over the adjoiiing country, and
some stormy rain accompanied by several strokes of lightning
followed this hurricane of wind. "The vjolence lasted a few mi-
nutes ; and the writer being drawn to the eastern baleony, it was
evident that a whilwind agitated the variety of substances which
had been raised into the air. The storm proceeded from west
to east, that i a from Hatnpstead over Kentish Town towards Hol-
Zz lowav. In about five minutes,
in the direction of the latter
place,a magnificent projection
was visible from the clouds, like
that on the margin:
It descended two-thirds of
the distance from the clouds
towards the earth, and evi-
dently consisted of parts of
clouds descending in a vortex,
violently agitated like smoke
from the chimney of a furnace
recently supplied with fuel. It
then shortened, and appeared
to be drawn up towards the
stratum of clouds; and presently it assumed the following ap-
pearance:
* As in Mr, Pepys’s Apparatus.——Ep.
‘Water-Spout. 147
It finally drew itself into the
cloud; but a small cone, or
projecting thread, of varying
size and length, continued for
ten minutes. At the time, and
for half an hour after, a severe
storin of rain was visibly falling
from the mass of clouds connected with it, the extent being ex-
actly defined by the breadth of Holloway, Highgate, and Horn-
sey. About two hours after, on walking from Kentish Town to-
wards Holloway, it was found that one of the heaviest torrents
ef rain remembered by the inhabitants had fallen around the
foot of Highgate-hill; and some persons having seen the pro-
jecting cloud, an absolute belief existed that a water-spout had
burst at the crossing of the new and old roads. On proceeding
towards London, various accounts, agreeing with the superstition
or preconceived noticns of the bye-standers, were given; but in
the farm-yard at the three-mile stone it appeared that some hay-
makers were stacking some hay from a waggon which stood be-
tween two-ricks, that the same whirlwmd which passed over
Kentish Town had passed over the loaded waggon with an im-
petus sufficient to carry it above twenty yards from its station,
and to put the men upon it and on the rick in fear of their lives.
Passing the road, it carried with it a stream of hay, and nearly
unroofing a shed on the other side, filled the air to a great height
with fragments of hay, leaves, and boughs of trees, which resem-
bled a vast flight of birds in progress across the interval between
the London road and Duval’s Lane, towards Hornsey Wood.
The family of the writer, from his residence a quarter of a mile
nearer London, beheld the descending cloud, or water-spout,
‘pass over the spot; and they saw its train, which, at the time,
they took to be a flight of birds. They afterwards beheld the
descending cloud draw itself upward, and they and other wit-
nesses describe it as a vast mass of smoke working about in great
agitation. ‘To them it was nearly vertical, in a northern direc-
tion ; and to persons a quarter of a mile north it was nearly ver-
tical in a southern direction: and all agree that it drew itself up,
Aithout rain, at a short distance to the east of Duval’s Lane,
and that it was followed near the earth bythe train of light bodies.
It appeared also, on various testimony, to let itself down in a
gradual and hesitating manner, beginning with a sort of knob in
the cloud, and then descending lower, and curling and twisting
about, till it shortened, and gradually drew itself into the cloud.
The inferences, therefore, of the editor, from what he saw and
heard, are as follow:
K 2 1, That
148 Water-Spout.
1. That the phenomenon called a water-spout is a mere col-
lection of clouds, of the same rarity as the mass whence they are
drawn.
2. That the descent is a mechanical effect of a whirlwind,
which creating a vacuum, or high degree of rarefaction, extend-
ing between the clouds and earth, the clouds descend in it by
their gravity, or by the pressure of the surrounding clouds or air.
3. That the convolutions of the descending mass, and the
sensible whirlwind felt at the earth, as well as the appearance of
the commencement, increase, and decrease of the mass, all de-
monstrate the whirl of the air to be the mechanical cause.
4, That the same vortex, whirl, or eddy, of the air, which
occasions the clouds to descend, occasions the loose bodies on
the earth te ascend.
5. That if in this case the lower surface had been water, the
same mechanical power would have raised a body of foam, va-
pour, and water, towards the clouds.
6. That as soon as the vortex or whirl exhausts or dissipates
itself, the phenomena terminate by the fall to the lower surface
of the light bodies or water, and by the ascent of the cloud.
hz That when water constitutes the light body of the lower
surface, it is probable that the aqueous vapour of the cloud, by
coalescing with it, may occasion the clouds to condense, and fall
at that point, as through a syphen.
8. That if the descending cloud be highly electrified, and the
vortex pass over a conducting body, as a church-stceple, it is
probable it may be condensed by an electrical concussion, and
fall at that spot—discharging whatever has been taken up fromthe
lower surface, and producing the strange phenomena of showers
of frogs, fish, &c. &c.
9. It appears certain, that the action of the air on the mass of
clouds, pressing towards the mouth of the vortex as to a funnel
(which in this case it exactly represented), occasioned such a
condensation as to augment the simultancous fall of rain to a
prodigy.
A water-spout appears, therefore, to be produced by me-
chanism easily understood. But the writer would ask, whether
for important ceconomical purposes it may not be possible: to
imitate this mechanism by erecting hollow cylinders of wood or
iron, and exhausting them of air by vessels in communication
with them, or by heat, so as to produce the vacuum of a whirl-
wind, and, by consequence, the condensation and fall of clouds,
whenever rain might be urgently wanted for purposes of agricul-
ture?
STEAM-
Sieam-Boat.~—Malvern Waters.—Ancient Coal-Mines. 149
STEAM-BOAT.
We have omitted in its proper place a note relative to the
Plate given with the article on the Steam-Boat, in the present
Number. The dotted lines at the side of the paddle-wheels are
intended to indicate that the wheels may be made to occupy
the whole breadth of the stern of the vessel.
MALVERN WATERS.
A correspondent having requested information respecting the
analysis of the Malvern Well, alluded to in p. 231 of our last
volume, we insert the result from Dr. Philip’s work on this
subject, published so far back as the year 1805.
The contents of one gallon of the Holyweil water are:
Carbonate of soda ........... 5'd3 grs.
Garbonate. of lime ........0e.: 16
Carbonate of magnesia ....... 0°9199
Carbonate of iron.....eee-.0. 0°625
Sulphate of soda,..s 5,.:05) 0, elle» pi 21890
Muriate of soda ...ccececrene cad
Resid oye isisis drajey gee oOo
146,109
OF the water of St. Ann’s Well, Dr. Philip gives the following
_ as the contents of a gallon:
Carbonate of soda... .u.dcdecesae Ge
Carbonate of lime..........02..- 0°352
Carbonate of magnesia..........- 0°26
Carbonate of irom... 362. 0e.+ 000. 0928
Sulphate of soda........eeeee02- 148
Muriate of soda ....esseesereees (959
Residuum ....50.scpecccsee | OAL
ANCIENT COAL-MINES.
A Dublin paper gives the following account of the ancient
coal-mines lately discovered at the Giants’ Causeway:
“There were five pits of coal opened in Port Ganneye, west of
the Giants’ Causeway; the westernmost of which is 244 feet
* This residuum was found to be insoluble jn the sulphuric, muriatic,
and nitric acids; also in solutions of the alkaline carbonates and of am-
monia, and in alcohol; but with the assistance of heat dissolved very na-
pidly in a strong solution of potash or of soda, The author concludes, that
this residuum consists of particles separated from the surface of the glass
retort by the action of the water when boiling, and that the soda is the
priucipal agent in producing this separation, ~
above
150 Steam Engines.— Geological Curiosities at Boughton Hill.
above the level of the sea at half tide, and from thence to the
top of the precipice 44 feet.
“© In Port Noffer,east of the Giants’ Causeway, there were two
pits; the westernmost 199 feet from the level of the sea—and
from the pit to the top 70 feet. The distance from the first:
altitude taken at Port Ganneye to that in Port Noffer, is 80
ete
he people who found the coal, with difficulty and in some
places great danger, threw off the pillars to get at it, and could
not pursue it further than cleared, as they had no method of
supporting the vast mass above it.
«© The stratum of coal dips into the land in a southerly direc-
tion; and from the altitudes taken it appears that it lowers as it
approaches to the eust:
“ Several trials at different places have been made to find coal,
but none worth following, except under columnar basalt, above
which is a stratum of irregular whin-stone, then basalt pillars at
the top. The depth of the good seams of coal is from three to
five feet ; the upper ‘coal, on which the pillars rest, is a soft
mossy coal; the wooden coal is :in-the centre, and the best and
more solid at the bottom of the pit. The blocks of wooden coal
lie nearly horizontal, in an east and west direction across the
face of the promontory. One of those blocks is so large in the
east pit, Port Ganneye, that four men with two crow-irons could
not turn it out.
6° The land, ‘Soe the Jom to the southward falls consi-
derably.” ‘
STEAM ENGINES {£N CORNWALL.
The following were the respective quantities of water lifted
one foot high with ane bushel of coals by twenty-nine engines,
reported by Messrs. Leans’, in the month of July.
Load per square
Pounds of water.| uch in cylinder,
21 common engines averaged 21,077,581 various.
Woolf’s at Wheal Vor .. 36,345,637 15:4 lib.
Ditto Wh. Abraham .. ° 44,987,270 15+]
Ditto ditto 9. os? 925,258,888 3°7
Ditto Wh. Unity es ~~ 82,590,596 13°1
Daleouth engine oe 13 02 $,638 li-2
Wheal Abraham ditto i 35,089,486 10°3
United mines ditto .. -- 382,094,036 179
Wheal Chance ditto ee _ 3/,889,/98 13-0
GEOLOGICAL CURIOSITIES AT BOUGHTON HILL.
The workmen employed in cutting through Boughton Hill,
Kent,
New Barometer. 151
Kent, have lately found three bullets, nearly thirty feet from the
surface, in the solid clay; they are of an oblong form, and the
lead is so pure that when cut it exhibits a beautiful metallic lus-.
tre; the surface is covered with a green colour, resembling in
appearance clay when combined with pyrites.. No probable
conjecture can be formed as to the manner and time of their de-
position; for neither local circumstances, nor the primary stra-
tum in which they were found, can lead to any satisfactory ex-
planation. Several shells have also been found in the secondary
stratum, one of which is particularly remarkable, exhibiting in
its interior a mass of minute crystals of selenite, which seems:
clearly to prove that the crystallization of this mineral has taken
place subsequently to the deposition of the shell, and therefore
may be considered, comparatively speaking, as of recent forma-
tion. The fossils are carefully collected by a gentleman in the
neighbourhood, and are intended to be exhi! bited at the cottage
on the hill, whenever their number shall be worthy of notice. It
is a singalar circumstance, that the masses of clay which acci-
dentally fall down exhibit, in every instance which has yet oc-,
curred, an inclined plane of 40 degrees—and the surface of these
planes, which the workmen call ios are covered over usually to
the depth of a quarter of an inch, with an exceedingly soft species
of clay, of a blueish colour. The work on the hill is now going.
on very well, considering the difficulty which arises from the
falling in of ‘the earth at the sides from the want of tenacity in
the clayey soil.
NEW BAROMETER.
We understand (says an Edinburgh new ‘spaper) that an instru-
ment has lately been invented by Adie, optician, Edinburgh, which:
auswers all the purposes of the common barometer, and has
the advantage of being much more portable, and much less liable
to accident. In this instrument the moveable column is oil, in-
closing in a tube a portion of nitrogen, Ee changes its bulk
according to the density of the atmosphere. Mr, Adie has given
it the name of symptesomeler (or measurer of « raph esata: “One
of these new instruments was taken to India in the Buckingham -
shire of Greenock ; and by directions of Captain Christian cor-
responding observations were made on it and on the common
marine barometer every three hours during the voyage. The
result, we are informed, was entirely satisfactory—the new in-
strument remaining nnaffected by the violent motion of the ship.
We may add, that the sy mpiesometer way be made of dimen- .
sions so small as to be easily carried in the pocket, so that it is
likely to be become a valuable acquisition to the geologist.
K 4 LECTURES,
152 Leciures.
LECTURES.
- London Hospital.—Lectures on the following subjects will be
given at this Hospital, to commence in October:
Anatomy and Physiology, by Mr. Headington; Surgery, by
Mr. Headington; Midwifery, by Dr. Ramsbottom; Chemistry,
by Mr. R. Phillips; Materia Medica, and Pharmacy, by Mr.
R. Phillips.
Particulars may be had of Mr. Jenkenson, at the London Hos-
pital.
Mr, R. Phillips will commence a Course of Twenty-four Lec-
tures ‘on Chemistry, at No. 66, Cheapside, on Monday the 6th
of O¢tober, at Seven o’clock in the Evening.
Tickets of Admission and a Syllabus of the Lectures may be
had af Mr. Phillips, No. 1, George-Yard, Lombard-Street, and
of Mr. Edenborough, 29, Poultry.
St. George’s Medical, Chemical, and Chirurgical School.—
The Courses will commence in the first week of October, namely:
1. On the Laws of the Animal GEconomy, and the Practice
of Physic, (at No. 9, George-Street, Hanover -Square,) bv George
Pearson, M. D.F. R. S., Senior Physician to St. George’s Hos-
pital, &c. &e. &e.
2. On Therapeutics, with Materia Medica and Medical Ju-
risprudence, by W. T. Brande, F.R.S., Professor at the Royal
lustitution ; and by George Pearson, M.D., &c. &c.
~3. On Chemistry, at the Royal Iustitution, by W. 'T. Brande,
Professor of Chemistry, Roy. Inst.
4. On Surgery, by B. C. Brodie, F. R.S., Assistant Surgeon
to St. George’s Hospital.
5. Sir Everard Home will give, as usual, Surgical Lectures
gratuitously to the Pupils of the Hospital.
Anatomical, Chirurgical, and Medical School of St. Thomas’s
and Guy’s Hospitals.—The usual Course of Lectures at these
Hospitals will commence in October ; viz.
At St. Thomas’s.—Auatomy and Oper ations of Surgery, by
Mr. Astley Cooper and Mr. Henry Cline.—Principles and Prac-
tice of Surgery, by Mr. Astley Cooper.
At Guy’s.— Practice of Medicine, by Dr. Curry and Dr.
Cholmeley. — Chemistry, by Dr. Marcet and Mr. Allen. —
Experimental Philosophy, by Mr. Allen.—Theory of Medicine,
and Materia Medica, by Dr. Curry and Dr. Cholmeley.—Mid-
wifery, and Diseases of Women and Children, by Dr.Haighton.
—Physiology, or Laws of the Animal Economy, by Dr. Haighton.
—Structure and Diseases of the Teeth, by Mr. Fox,
-N.B. These several Lectures, with those on Anatomy, said on
the Principles and Practice of Surgery, given at the Theatre of
St. Thomas’s Hospital adjoining, -are so arranged that no two of
them
Lectures. 153
them interfere in the hours of attendance ; and the whole is cal-
culated to form a Complete Course of Medical and Chirurgical
Instruction. ‘Terms and other particulars may be learnt from
Mr-Stocker, Apothecary to Guy’s Hospital.
_ The following Course of Lectures will be delivered at St. Bar-
tholomew’s Hospital, during the ensuing Winter. ‘To commence
October the first :
On the Theory and Practice of Medicine, by Dr, Hue.—On
Anatomy and Physiology, by Mr. Abernethy.—On the Theory
and Practice of Surgery, by Mr. Abernethy. —On Chemistry and
Materia Medica, by Dr. Hue.—On Midwifery, by Dr. Gooch.—
Practical Anatomy, with Demonstrations, by Mr. Stanley.
Further particulars may be obtained by application to Mr.
Wheeler, Apothecary at the Hospital; or of Messrs. Anderson
and Chase, Bookseilers, 40, West Smithfield.
Mr. J. Taunton, member of the Royal College of Surgeons of
London, Surgeon to the City and Finsbury Dispensaries, City of
London Truss Society, &c,, will commence his Autumnal Course
of Lectures on Anatomy, Physiology, Pathology, and Surgery, on
Saturday, October 4, 1817, at Eight o’clock in the Evening pre-
cisely, and continue them every Tuesday, Thursday, and Satur-
day, at the same hour.
In this Course of Lectures it is proposed to take a comprehen-
sive view of the structure and ceconomy of the living body, and
to consider the causes, symptoms, nature, and treatment of sur-
gical diseases, with the mode of performing the different surgi-
eal operations; forming a complete course of anatomical and phy-
siological instruction for the medical or surgical student, the
artist, the professional or private gentleman.
An ample field for professional edification will be afforded by
the opportunity which pupils may have of attending the clinical
and other practice of both the City and Finsbury Dispensaries.
Mr. John Mason Good, F.R.S., &c. will commence his Course
of Lectures on Nosology, Medical Nomenclature, the Theory,
Principles and Practice of Medicine, on Monday, September 29,
1817, at the Crown and Rolls Rooms, Chancery Lane. ‘The
Course will rather exceed three months, and be repeated three
times a year. From the comprehensiveness of the subject a
Lecture will be given every day instead of every- other day, as is
the usual practice. The Introductory Lecture will commence
at Half past Three o’clock in the Afternoon: the subsequent
Lectures at Eight in the Morning. The former will be open to
the Medical Public, including Medical Pupils, by Tickets, to be
had gratuitously at any of the Medical Booksellers of the Metro-
polis; where the Terms for the Lectures may also be known.
LisT
154 List of Patenis for new Inventions.
LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS.
’ To Renben Phillips, of the city of Exeter, for his new and im-
proved method of purifying gas for the purpose of illumination.
— 19th July 1817.—6 months allowed for lodging the specifica-
tion.
To George Wyke, of Bath, and Edward Shorter, of Union-
street, Borough, for certain improvements in the construction
of wheel carriages.—19th July.—6 months.
To Peter Hamden, of Albany-place, in the parish of St. Giles
Camberwell, Surrey, for his improvement or improvements in the
making acement or composition for ornaments and statues,
and for making artificial bricks or an imitation of bricks, tiles,
and stones, and joining and cementing the same, and for erecting,
covering, and decorating buildings.internally and externally ; and
also an improvement or improvements in the mixing, working,
and moulding of the said cement or composition upon any sort
of materials, orin working and moulding whole and entire erec-
tions and substances therewith.—19th July.—6 months.
To Frederick Brunton, of Bride-Lane, Fleet-street, London,
for his new mode of employing silk or other materials in the
making of hats and bonnets.—19th July. —2 months.
To ‘John James Alexander MacCarthy, of. Millbank-street,
Westminster, Middlesex, for his road or way for passage across
rivers, creeks and waters, and from shore to shore thereof, with-
out stoppage or impediment to the constant navigation thereof,
and across ravines, fissures, clefts, and chasms; and a new method
or methods of constructing arches and apertures for the runuing
and flowing of water through the same, or under bridges to be
used and applied in the construction of the before-mentioned
road or way, or otherwise.—28th July.—6 months.
To Louis.Felix Vallet, late of Paris, but now of Walbrook,
London, for his new ornamental surface to metals or metallic
compositions.—5th August.—6 months.
To George Stratton, » of Piccad: llv, Middlesex, for his method
of saving fuel by improvements in fire-places, and more effectually
heating and ventilating buildings.—5th August.—6 months.
To ‘Chatles Attwood, of Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London,
for his improvement or improvements in the manufacture of
wiudow-glass of the kind or description commonly wrought or
fabricated into crown glass or German sheet glass; and also in
a certain process or processes in the manufacture of crown glass.
—5th August. —2 months.
To John Hawks, of Gateshead, county of Ri ae: for his new
method
a es
Brussels Prize Question. — Astronomy. 155
method of making iron rails to be used in the construction of
rail-ways.-—5dth August.—2 months.
To Ludvid Granholm, of Foster-lane, in the city of London,
captain in the Royal Navy of Sweden, for his new or improved
method or methods, process or processes, mean or means, of
preserving such animal and vegetable products or substances se-
parately or mixed together, as are fit for the food of man, for such
a length of time as to render them fit for ship and garrison stores.
—5th August.—6 months.
To Anthony Hill, of Plymouth Iron-works, for improvements
in the working of iron.—5th August.—6 months.
To John Dickinson, of Nash Mill in the parish of Abbott’s
Langley, Hertfordshire, for his method of manufacturing by means
of machinery, paper for copper-plate printing ; also paper for
writing, drawing, letter-press printing, and of a thicker sort for
boards, and similar in texture and substance to eard-boards or
paste-hoards ; and certain improvements in his patent machinery
for manuafacturing and cutting paper.—5th August.—6 months.
To Dennis MacCarthy, of Little Compton-street, St. Aun’s,
Soho, Middlesex, for certain improvements on ploughs of various
descriptions.—5th August.—6 months.
“BRUSSELS PRIZE QUESTION.
The last branch of the second prize question of the Royal
Academy of Sciences of Brussels, given p. 380, vol. xlix. has been
since amended; and instead of the way in which it is there stated,
now runs thus: “In case of no decision, as to the greater pro-
bability, which of the two methods of investigating its nature is
best calculated to simplify the theory of chemical facts?”
—a a
ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA, SEPTEMBER 1817.
D. H. M. D.'H. M.
1. 0. O' © in apogee 14.12.2 Can
2.12.46 € AX 15.9.5 ( *=
4. 8.54. ( 125% 15.13.36 Ax
6.12.53 (4 U 15.17. 8 ¢ om
6.0 0 g 20d1g * 25. 154) 0.-Ood):b Bit BOIS:
7.1.26 (YG 17. 118 @ 6 Ophiuchi
7.0.09 59% *7'N 18.942 € > f
9.416 Cy~X 18. 1.34 (a f
10.0.0 9 44g *41'/N. 20:0 0 ¢ 105 8 *.23'S.
11.030 CeQ 21. 9.44 ( evs
12.0 0 9 374 Mayer* 20'N. 22. 0. O G 108 ¥ nearly in
12. 0 O 9 380 Mayer * 26'N. contact
12.250 dy m 23.22.28 © enters &
12.16. 1 ¢ 6m 26.19.51 € ox
13. 0. O @ in perigee 29. 0. O € in apogee
13. 0. 0 9 383 Mayer* 24’'N. 29,2018 CAB
METEORO-
156 Meteorology.
METEOROLOGY.
At Tunbridge Wells, on the night of Wednesday the 30th of
July, about half after eleven o’clock, appeared a beautiful para-
selene, or mock moon. It was at the distance of about 25 de-
grees south of the moon, and was highly coloured with red aud
yellow, and at length had the addition of a projecting and ta-
pering band of light extending in the direction of the halonic
radius. The phenomenon lasted about three minutes, The
sky was full of the cérrws or curleloud, and the wanecloud passed
over in fine veils here and there dispersed in wavy bars. A
change had been conspicuous in the clouds to-day. . The long
lines of cirrus extending to either horizon, large well-defined
twainclouds to Jeeward, and waneclouds in the intermediate re-
gion of the atmosphere, formed a character of the sky contrasted
to the rapid production of rainclouds and showers which had
gone on almost every day for a week before.—The harometer
was stationary nearly all day, and till midnight, at 29-43.
The Journal of Augsburgh of the Sth ult. has published the
following observations made in the Observatory of that city:—
** On the 7th inst. at 42 minutes past eight in the evening,
Professor Stark observed, in a serene sky, a luminous band, of a
colour similar to the Milky Way, in the direction of the head of
Serpentarius, in the constellation Hercules ; and which passing
below the Northern Crown, and then between the tail of the
Great Bear, and the head of the Little Bear, ended in the star
Alpha of the Dragon. Its length was 71 degrees, and its breadth,
almost every where uniform, was two apparent diameters of the
Moon. This phenomenon, which had a great resemblance to
the prolongation which rapidly took place on the 13th of Sep-
tember 1S11, in the tail of the great comet, disappeared at
o8 minutes past eight. From this moment until one o’elock in
the morning the Professor observed that the nebulous part No. 8,
of the constellation of the Buckler of Sobiesky, when the lu-
minous band had commenced, seemed to be surrounded with an
aureola greater, more lively, ind more sparkling than usual.
The great spot or crevice, which appeared on the 23d of July
last on the sun’s disk, disappeared on the 4th of August. There
were afterwards for med a great number of small spots, arranged
in several groups, which Professor Stark intends to describe in a
work which he proposes to publish very soon.
Meleoro-
Meteorology. 157
Meteorological Olservations kept at Walthamstow, Essex, from
July \5. to August lo; 1817.
[Usually between the Hours of Seven and Nine A.M. andthe Thermometer
(a second time) between One and Two P.M. ]
Date. Therm. Barom. Wind.
July
15
16
V7
18
i9
20
21
22
23 -
24
25
26
27
28
29
52
64
51
62
53
62
53
68
54
68
59
69
58
70
61
68
59
68
29°32
29-65
29-87
29-87
99-98
30-00
29:88
29°77
29°78
30:00
30°06
29:99
29-76
29°77
30°00
\ .
SE—NW—N.NW.—Very rainy; very black
nimbus 8 A.M.; sun and great showers all
day ;. stormy; showery.
N—NW.—Sunshine, cirrus and windy; fine
day; clear and cirrostratus.
NW.—Clear, cirrus, and cirrostratus; fine
day; rain and wind,
NW.—Gray and calm; 11 P.M.; wind and
cirrus; fine day; cirrostratus and clear.
NW.— Clear, clouds, and wind; fine day;
moon- and star-light.
NW—SW.— Clear and cirrus; fine day; rain
after 6 P.M.
SW —S.—Clouds and wind; fine day; at
8 P.M. a mackerel cérrostratus; clear night.
Moen frst quarter.
SW—S—SW.—Rain and hazy; fine day; sun
and wind; clear, and carrostratus.
NW—N—NW.— Gray; showers and sun;
great shower at 3 P.M.; clear and cirro-
stratus”. é
N—SE—SW.—Sun, and cirrocumulus ; fine
day; clear, and cirrostratus; the moon ina
corona.
S—SW.—Gray; slight rain; wind, clouds and
some sun; clear; cirrostratus.
S.—Gray; slight showers; rainy; clouds and
wind,
SW.—Clear and cumuli; 10 A.M. thunder
and rain; stormy showers and sun between
them; clear, and cérrostratus.
SW.—Clear, clouds, sun, and wind; sunshine;
after 5 P.M. storms of rain; star-hght.
Full moon.
W—SW-S by E.—Cumuli; clear, sun and
wind; fine day; star-light.
* July 23d, a man and a dog were killed by lightning at Sevenoaks in
Kent; and the steeple of Sunchurch burnt at the same time,
July
158
July
30” 56
68
a EG
67
August
ay
69
a BO
68
ey |
64
1 NE 35
67
5 56
68
ery
74
7.96
74
3 ol
eo S66
O55
68
YW REI Pg
66
Lib 56
69
2er55
68
13° 58
68
14. 60
70
15 60
66
29:77
29°77
29°76
29°87
29°86
29-76
29:88
30°10
29:98
29°54
29°66
29°78
29°77
29:43
~~ 29°32
29°66
29°66
Metéorology.
SE—W.—Sunshine; fine day; cirrus and cz-
muti; cloudy.
SE.—Sun, and cumuli; sun and showers;
storm at Tottenham at § P.M.; bright star-
light.
W.—Clear and cumuli; sunshine, and brisk
wind; clear night.
W by S—NW.W.—Clear morning; fie day;
cloudy night.
S—SW. —Cloudy and windy; fine day; star-
light ; 11 P.M. remarkable cirrocumuli.
SW—W.—Sun; cumudi, and windy; sun and
showers ; cloudy.
N—SE.—Gray morning and windy; fine day;
fine clear star-light night. | Moon last
quarter.
SW—S.—Sun and sératus; clear,and cumuli;
clear star-light.
SE.—Gray; no sun till about 1 P.M.; clouds;
some stars.
SW.—Rain early; showers, sun and wind;
fine afternoon; star-light.
NW—W. =Clea r, and windy; a shower at
noon; fine day; fine star-light night.
W—SW—NW.—Slight shawerss and sun, and
wind,hazy and sun; showery; Gee star-light.
S.—Fine morning; sun and clouds; gray day,
but some sun about 3 P.M.; slight showers
after G P.M.; cloudy.
S.—Sun, wind, and hazy; shower at noon;
fine day; star-light; ram 10 P.M. New
moon.
SW.—Cloudy and great wind; great showers;
sun and wind; star-light.
SW—S.—Rain, sun, and windy; sun and
clouds, and windy; showers all day; ; mottled
cirrostratus at 6 P.M.; rain, and very dark.
S—SW.—Sunshine ; fine day; some drops of
rain; star-light.
The 19th of last June, the 2d time of the Thermometer was
70, and that was at 8 A.M.; it was taken again at 3 P.M. and
was then 80, as it was unavoidably missed that day at the usual
time.
METEORO-
Meteorology. . 159
METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL KEPT AT BOSTON,
LINCOLNSHIRE,
= . . aoe
[The time of observation, unless otherwise stated, is at 1 P.M.]
eek eee
Age of
1817. | the |hermo-| Baro- |State of the Weather and Modification
Moon] meter. | meter. of the Clouds.
DAYS.
July 15) 1 | 54° 29°35 |Heavy rain all the day
2] 5&5 | 29°79 |Fair—some rain P.M.
17| -3 | 60°5 | 29 94 |Ditto ditto
4| 63: 29°97 |Showery—heavy rain P.M. till the
next morning
Ol 54, |ys OT: 30°03 |Fair
20| -6 | 62° 30°05 |Ditto
OM Jed JO 29°90 |Ditto—some rain A.M,
29' 8 | 67° 29°87 |Ditto ditto
23} 9 |. 63° 30°05 |Ditto ditto P.M.
24] 10 |. 70° 30°15 |Ditto
O5oTh | 67° 30°06 |Ditto
26| 12 | 66: 29°83 |Ditto
27} 13 | 62: 29 66 |Showery
28] full | 64°5 | 29°90 |Fair
290| 15 | 68: 30 06 |Ditto—rain in the even? and night
30} 16 | 70° 29°68 |Ditto ditto
31} 2 66° 29°77 | fPhunder storm—heavy rain
Aug. 1| 18 | 57° 29°90 |Showery
2} 19 | 61°5 | 30°05 |Fair—rain in the evening
3] 20 | 62° | 29°72 |Showery
4| ¢! |- 60: 29°80 | Ditto
5| 22} 63: | 30°15 |Fair through the day
6} 23 | 69° 30°14 |Ditto ditto
7| 24 |. 66° 29°95 |Ditto
8) 25-4 57° 29°54 |Stormy—rain
9| 26 | 62 29°72 |Showery
10) 27 | 63° 25°91 |Fine all the day
11] 28 | 62° 29°80 |Fair—heavy rain at night
12) 29 |. 66° 29°50 |Ditto—gale from the W.
13}new] 63: 29°49 |Ditto ditto
14) 1] 68° 29'77 |Showery © ditto
The harvest in this neighbourhood will not commence generally for at
least fourteen days.
METEORO-
160 . Meteorology.
. METEOROLOGICAL ‘TABLE,
By Mr. Cary, oF THE STRAND,
For August 1817.
Thermometer. Pry ;
‘ Aas
, sl. 1S Height of |S 9 3
Days of 8 2 S Ss the Barom. ee Weather.
Rs w, og Inches, a Bt
P= “ Uw > |
oo) a Q5s
Be PAA MTS Byers i oe) a
July 27; 61 | 66 | 55 | 29.62 36 Showery :
28| 60 | 66 | 59 *80 42 |Showery
29| 60 | 67 | 58 70 48 even
30, 60} 68 | 55 fk 58 |Fair
31} 58 | 66 | 54 71 42 Showery
Aug. 1/57 | 69 | 55 75 51 |Showery
g| 55 | 69 | 59 "89 65 (Fair
3 55 | 66 |'55 ‘70 54. Fair
4| 59 | 68 | 56 “72 55 {Fair
5) 58 | 67 | 59 *O5 57. ~‘|Fair
6| 6o | 72 | 58 | 30:00 | 65 (Fair |
7158 | 73 | 57} 29°79). 79 «|Fair 7
g| 59 | 65 | 55 *50 46 Showery
9| 60 | 68 | 55 ‘70 42 |Showery :
10} 57 | 68 | 56 *80 40 (Showery
11} 59 | 65 | 60 *65 45 |Cloudy
12) 58 | 60 | 58 "45 3g |Showery
13) 59 | 66 | 59 51 48 Showery
14| 62.) 68:|57 7°67 35 |Cloudy
15; 60 | 68 | 55 78 62 Fair
16| 60 | 69 | 56 a 52 Fair: }
17| 58 | 62 | 55 *80 42 ‘Stormy
18| 57 | 65 | 60 "92 43 Cloudy
19 60 | 66 | 60 “68 36 |Showery
20, 60 | 68 | 55 | °60 50 [Fair
21| 55 | 58 | 52 "80 25 (Stormy
22} 54 | GO | 53 | 30°06 47 |Fair
23) 51 | 64 | 56 | 29°90 46 |Fair ”
24 56 | 60 | 56 56 22 |Showery
25, 59 | 57 | 52 "16 | O {Rain
26| 55 | 62 | 53 Ol 15 |Stormy
a
N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o’clocks
2 ————eSE - 2
Erratum.—In Sir RicuaRD.PuILLies’s paper, in this Number, at the
end of the 2d objection, for “ being the orbicular force common,” read
« the orbicular force being common,” a
-
f 161-]
XXIV. On Iodine. By Anprew Ure, M.D. Professor of
Chemistry, &c. Se., Glasgow,
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — Due great trouble and uncertainty attending all the
processes which have been prescribed in the scientific journals
for procuring this interesting elementary body, and the high
price at which it is sold in Great Britain, induced me about two
years ago to inquire whether an easier and cheaper mode of
preparing it might not be discovered*.
As many of the Scotch soap manufacturers use scarcely any
other alkaline matter for their hard soaps except kelp, it oc-
curred to me that in some of their residuums a substance might
he found, rich in iodine. Accordingly, after some investigation,
I found a brown liquid of an oily consistence, from which I ex-
pected to procure what I wanted. ‘his liquid drains from the
salt, which they boil up and evaporate to dryness from their
waste leys fer the soda manufacturer. I instituted a series of
experiments on the best mode of extracting the iodine. As these
succeeded far beyond my expectation, I hope the following ac-
count of them will prove not uninteresting to the British chemist.
The specific gravity of the above liquid, as obtained at different
times, is very uniformly about 1-374, water being 1:000. It
converts vegetable blues to green, thus indicating free alkali.
Of this the manufacturer is aware, for he returns it occasionally
into his kelp leys. Its boiling point is 283° Fahr. Eight ounces
apothecaries’ measure require precisely one measured ounce of
sulphuric acid for their neutralization. Supposing this quantity
of acid combined with soda, it would indicate one part of pure
soda in eleven by weight of the liquid. But the greater part of
the alkali is not uncombined; for an immense quantity of sul-
phurous acid and a little sulphuretted hydrogen gases escape on
the affusion of the sulphuric acid. One hundred grains of the liquid
yield 3-8 cubic inches of gas, chiefly sulphurous acid; and sul-
phur is at the same time deposited. From the quantity of sul~
phur, one might expect a larger proportion of sulphuretted hydro-
gen; but the disengaged gas possesses the peculiar smell and
pungency of burning sulphur, blanches the petals of the red
rose, but. shows hardly any action on paper dipped in saturnine
solutions. Iu the instant of decomposition of the sulphite of so-
da, and hydroguretted sulphuret existing in the liquid, the nascent
sulphurous acid of the former may be supposed to act on the
* The iodine sold in London is for the most part imported from Paris,
as I was informed’ by an-eminent practical chemist.
,_ Val. 50. No. 233. Sept. 1817. L nascent
162 On Iodine.
nascent sulphuretted hydrogen of the latter; their atoms of oxy-
gen and hydrogen uniting to form water, while the sulphur of
both is precipitated. I cannot in any other way account for the
very copious separation of sulphur, while very little sulphuretted
hydrogen appears. From the excess of sulphite present in the
‘liquid, we have a redundant quantity of sulphurous acid evolved.
From eight liquid ounces, equal by weight to cleven, 213 grains
of sulphur are obtained.
The liquid saturated with the sulphuric acid has a specific
gravity of 1°443, a bright yellow colour, and it does not affect
the purple infusion of red cabbage. I distilled eight ounces of
this in a glass retort. The stopper of the tubulated receiver
was frequently blown out by the escape of incondensable gas, even
after the liquid had been for a long time in ebullition. This,
which was probably hydriodie acid gas, continued to be evolved
to the very last. In the receiver, which had been kept very
cool, a colourless and nearly transparent liquid was found. Its
specific gravity was 1:054, of an acidulous and acerb taste ; it
reddened vegetable blues, and powerfully blackened brass.
From this liquid I could extract only three or four grains of
iodine, though the viscid black substance left in the retort yielded
more than twenty times the quantity. We see therefore that by
distillation very little hydriodic acid can be procured from the
saturated liquid.
_ Inthe prosecution of my researches to ascertain the best mode
of extracting the iodine, I at length discovered the causes of the
anomalous results which had not a little perplexed me at first,
rendering the product very uncertain. The following method
was found to answer extremely well. ‘
The brown iodic liquid of the soap-boiler was heated to about
230° Fahr.; poured into a large stone-ware bason, of which it
filled nearly one-half, and was then saturated by the proper
quantity of sulphuric acid, as above stated. The acid ought to
be previously diluted with its own bulk of water*. On cooling
the mixture, a large quantity of saline crystals is found adhering
to the sides and bottom of the vessel. These are chiefly sulphate
of soda, with a very little sulphate of potash, and a few beautiful
oblong rhomboidal plates of hydriodate of soda. The precipi-
tated sulphur is intermixed with these crystals.
After filtering the cold liquid through woollen cloth, I add to
every twelve ounces apothecaries’ measure, 1000 grains of pow-
dered black oxide of manganese. This mixture is made in 4
glass globe or matrass, over the mouth of which a glass globe is
* When concentrated oil of vitriol is added, the effervescence is very
violent; the liquid reddens wherever the acid falls, and a little of the pur-
ple vapour of iodine rises,
then
On Iodine. ~ 163
then inverted. The heat of a charcoal chaffer being now applied,
the iodine sublimes in great abundance. To prevent the heat
from acting on the globular receiver, a thin dise of wood, with
a round hole in its centre, is placed over the shoulder of the
matrass. As soon as one globe becomes hot, another may be
substituted in its place} and thus two or three may sérve in ro-
tation to condense a yery large quantity. The iodine is easily
washed out bya little water. It is then drained on glass plates,
and dried. From the above twelve ounces of liquid I usually
obtained about 200 grains of iodine. This may be purified by
a second sublimation from dry quicklime. The most convenient
apparatus is that represented (Plate III. fig.1.) It is composed
of an exterior vessel J, containing the mixed materials, and an
interior one a, filled with cold water. On the outside of a, beau-
tiful large crystals concrete, and by lifting up @ they may be
readily detached without breaking them. If in the operation of
subliming the water of a should become hot, it is easy to run
it off with a siphon, and to fill it again with cold, or to put into
it some ice. J have not seei any such apparatus described be-
fore, and I ean recommend it as possessing many advantages
over the subliming vessels usually employed.
If the manganese be increased much beyond the above pro-
portion, the product of iodine is greatly lessened. If, for example,
tlhirice the quantity be used, a furious effervescence ensues; nearly
the whole mixture is thrown out of the matrass with a kind of
explosive violence; and hardly any iodine is to be procured, even
though the materials should have been saved by putting them
into avery large vessel. On the other hand, should only one-
half of the prescribed quantity of manganese be used, much hy-
driodic acid rises along with the iodine, and washes it perpetually
down the sides of the balloon, Or, if during the successful
sublimation of iodine the weight of manganese be doubled, the
violet vapours instantly cease. Neither sugar nor starch re-
stores to the mixture the power of exhaling iodice vapour.
A similar interruption of the process is occasioned by using an
excess of sulphurie acid. For, if to the mixture of twelve ounces
of saturated liquid, and 1000 grains manganese, an additional
half-ounce measure of sulphuric acid be poured in, the violet
vapour disappears, and the sublimation of iodine is finally stopped.
Quicklime, added so as to saturate the excess of sulphuric acid,
does not renew the process. In these two different cases, iodic
acid is probably formed by the too rapid and copious supply of
oxygen. For the due decomposition of hydriodic acid, the oxy-
gen ought to be afforded merely in the quantity requisite to sa-
turate its hydrogen.
The best subliming temperature is 232° Fahr.; though in epen
L 2 vessels
164 Theorems for determining
vessels it readily evaporates at much lower degrees of heat, evett
at that of the atmosphere. When it is spread thin on a plate
of glass, if the eye be brought into the same plane the violet
vapour is discernible at 100°. It evaporates slowly in the open
air at 50° of Fahrenheit. When put into a phial closed with a
common cork, the iodine soon disappears: it combines with
the substance of the cork, tingeing it brownish yellow, and ren-
dering it friable.
240 grains of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1°490, saturate 1000 grains of
the iodic liquid. Sulphurous acid is copiously exhaled as before,
After filtration a bright golden-coloured liquid is obtained. On
adding a little manganese to this liquid, iodine sublimes ; but
the quantity procurable in this way is considerably less than by
sulphuric acid.
I am, &ce.
‘Anderson’s Institution, Glasgow, ANDREW URE,
August 29, 1817.
XXV. Theorems for determining the Values of increasing Life
Annuities, By Mr. J.B. BENWELL.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sin, = d wes followirig collection of theorems embraces an ex~
tension of those communicated in a previous Namber of your
Magazine, being applicable to the valuation of life annuities in-
creasing by certain orders of a constant numerical ratio.
The several Life Assurance Companies established in the me-
tropolis are occasionally in the habit of granting annuities that
increase by the scale of the natural numbers as well as the mul-
tiples thereof, and which annuities may be either temporary or
deferred; but, in respect I (presume) to those institutions which do
not possess the proper and requisite aids (in conducting this branch
of scientific research), it has been represented as a matter of much
apparent doubt, whether the. methods they pursue, in order to
arrive at the supposed values in these and similar inquiries, be
rigorously exact and unobjectionable,—.a circumstance that
imperiously requires elucidation, because it tends to mliitate
against the avowed professions held out by them, of being guided
by the pure and unerring principles of mathematical truth. — It’is
very probable that the practice of granting progressive life an-
nuities might be rendered almost as general as any other species
of contingent investment; and what seems chiefly essential to
the dissemination thereof, is a commodious and accurate formula
for the solution of the most useful cases. But with the exception
of one for finding the value of a life annuity, increasing according
to
the Values of increasing Life Annuities. 165
to the common scale of notation, (as given in most treatises on
i the subject,) no others for this purpose, I believe, exist any where
i in print, but in the present work; in regard to which I have only
j to observe, they are as simple and concise as the nature of the
investigation would possibly admit: and as simplicity and ac-
curacy were objects indispensably in view, so they have not been
attained without some efforts of patience and perseverance. My
studies are prosecuted under auspices the most unfavourable: I
have to lament that my present situation but so ill accords with
a disposition for scientific pursuits.
The several formulz I shall enumerate will apply in the four
following cases; viz. when the annuity increases in the order of
the numbers (1.3.6. 10. 15) (1.3.5.7.9) by the squares of
this latter series, and also by the squares of the series (1. 2.3.
4,5.)
Then in the first case the formula exhibiting the value of the
_annuity will be
a—1 —2 _ 2 =O (Be eee toe )
at —z)+ 6(a +1) + x2—1.(a? + 9a + 10)r+0—1.(a2 + 32+ 2)2—\ > —2. (2a) + e—1.(1—2) + 20%
24.(a—1)3 .
In the second:
a.(e+1)+(2¢4+54+0—1.(2a+ rr (> (A +0)
a.(w—1)2
And for the two succeeding cases it will be respectively,
a —? ay 2 2-2 /64%—1 —a
@)+7r—1.a+ (4.(62+8) +2—1.(40? + 200+ 17) + (x—1)(2a+ 1). a(S =) 4+16.(0+1) + 2—1.0
a.(z— 1,3
. And,
= ~a Gr—(r—1.20) ig
T, (6(a+1) + (a? + 6a+7)24+02—1-(a% +204 1)2+a—1.2— (Q@--)|)* (vr)
a\a—l] )?
In each of the foregoing formule x denotes the ratio or amount
of one pound for a year; and (2) the complement or double the
expectation of human life, according as it is deduced from any
assigned table of observations.
The annuity may commence with the addition of some fixed
annual payment, still increasing in the same order; as for instance
(11,13. 16. 20) (11. 13. 15. 17), and so on, for the other series;
and thus may be generated various forms of increasing annuities
at pleasure. In this case the only difference will be, that we must
augment the value previously obtained, by the value of such ad-
ditional annuity on the given life for the total value required.
If the annuity, being a deferred oné, does not commence until
a given period equal 7, years, the quantity (a) must be deter-
L3 mined
166 Theorems for determining the Values of Life Annuities.
mined accordingly; that is, from a life 2 years older; aud after the
oroper substitution is made, the result afforded by each particu-
iH: formula must be combined with the numerical value of the
expression denoting the expectation of the given life receiving
Il. m years hence for the value of the annuity in this case.
Having thus found the value of an annuity deferred for 7 years,
we may thence derive the value of a similar temporary annuity
depending on the given life continuing so long in existence.
I much wish that I could have represented these different
formulz by others involving the combination of the equal
single and joint lives. But in each particular instance here ad-
duced this object could not well be accomplished.
I shall here introduce the expressions for the sums of a few
other series that occurred in the course of investigation, and
which may be found useful on some occasions.
‘Let X represent
(o—' 4 52—?7+4+- 92-34 1324-4417 2—54 ....(4n —8)a-*),
Y (a—' 4507+ 122—3 4 224—4+352—5)..,.(43n?—1])x 5"),
«And, Z(#—! +17 x—? + 57x—3 + 1 21a — 44+ 209a—5 + oor
(122?—20n+ 9)c—™. Then will the general expression for the
sum of each series be respectively,
4+2—1 —u
X— rts 9 Chaya
ac! (x—1)
(2+327—1) —n Lh US ime —n
Y= Tae oe) + al It) — (Sn + 2. (Sn2+5n+2))v
= —_——- ———ooOoOo Or eC —s*
(z—1)?
(6+2x-1)—1 —n —1 —n
Z= pole (ea) + 16.01 + x) +0—1 — (4(6n4 2) +21. (122 + 40+ 1))0
(@— | 2 z . s
In regard to the practical mle ate of the above theorems,
and generally of any other for summing reciprocal series of this
kind, where the terms of such series are very large, and the rate
of increase also rapid; it may be observed, that the negative
powers of (x) should be expanded to a proportionally greater ex-
tent, in order to obtain a result perfectly accurate.
The facility and marked attention with which my preceding
communications were inserted in the Philosophical Magazine,
have encouraged: me to a further prosecution of these subjects ;
and I intend at a future opportunity (should I find means—incli-
nation I possess) to furnish you with a paper embracing the
discussion of some interesting and rather novel points in the
doctrine of life assurances,
Haberdashers-Place. Hoxton, JAS, BENJ, BENWELL, .
Aug, 15, 1817,
Report of the Select Committee on Steam-Boats. 167
P.S. In my former communication for April, when stating
the equation which has (although improperly) been made the
principle and derivation of the common rule for equating of
payments, I purposely withheld the following note, with some
additional observations, but which circumstances have not ren-
dered necessary :—still however the insertion of the note is essen-
tial, as affording perhaps a more simple and decisive confirmation
of the truth of the above rule.
Since (4.7.2) is the whole accretion derived by A. for the term
(4), so collaterally will (a.r.¢) be that derived by 5. in the like in-
terva!. Now these objects being jointlyeffected by the rule (as they
ought to be), we need only conceive x. to have such a value that
br.(t—x) the gain of B in (¢—a) time shall equal (a.r.x) his
loss by the detention of the sum (a) for the time 2. Yet on the
other hand it may be urged, that (a.7.c), the gain on @ in .x. time
is equal br.(¢—a) the loss on b. for (¢—x); and therefore (U.r.2)
the whole interest must be actually made in such time. Now thus
equating interest with interest in place of discount certainly seems
erroneous ; but discard the restriction imposed or applied in this
ease [that of (a+) instead of (a+ art yi being the sum in
l+rt
hand at the end of the first term], the difficulty then vanishes,
and the thing appears, what it really is, simply a deduction or
corollary from the general expression and indicating an equality
between those quantities, but which can have no absolute rela-
tion to or dependence on the conditions constituting the right
and interest which A has in the question.
XXVI. Report of the Select Committee appointed to consider of
the Means of preventing the Mischief of Explosion from hap-
pening on board Steam- Boats, to the Danger or Destruciion
of His Majesty’s Subjects on board such Boats.
[Continued from p. 100.]
Mr. Witittam CHarman’s Evidence,
Waar is your profession, and place of abode >—My profession
is civil-engineer; my general place of abode is Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
Have you, as engineer, turned your attention to the construc-
tion of steam-engines for steam-boats?—As to steam-boats I
have not particularly; but I have been concerned in steam-en-
gines of every description, from being connected with the col-
lieries, where we have many engines.
Have you any steam-boats upon the Tyne ?—We have,
Have you seen those steam-boats ?>—Yes; 1 have.
* L 4 How
168 " Repori of the Select Committee
How many have you?—I think it is three; but I have only
been in one of them. Si dle
- Do you know the construction of the steam-boats employed
upon the Tyne ?—Low pressure condensing engines.
Are you aware of any reason which would render it expedient
to forbid the use of high pressure engines on board steam-boats?
—I look upon all engines, whether high pressure or low pressure,
as dangerous to the passengers, unless due precaution be taken
to emit the steam when exceeding a given pressure ; for in low
pressure engines the boilers are always liable to burst or to alter
their form, when the pressure becomes superior to the resistance ;
all boilers but those that are cylindrical in the section, and with
hemispherieal ends or portions of spheres or cones or conoids,
are liable to alter the form by the natural expansive force of the
steam, and therefore all boilers but of those forms owe their
safety to their weakness; because if weak they will alter their
form without danger, and if strong, they have been known to
bend the iron so abruptly as to break asunder.
Are you speaking of wrought, or cast iron ?—I speak of wrought
iron; and consequently they explode, and in many instances have
destroyed several of the passengers; they are so far more dan-~
gerous to the passengers that they frequently scald them, and do
not actually kill them. There are a description of engines in use
in the counties of Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland, and
York, that are termed loco-motive engines; the form of their
boilers is cylindrical, with curved ends.
Are those applicable to boats?— Certainly; they are high
pressure engines working with a force of from fifty to sixty-five
pounds per inch; and no accident has happened to any of them
but to one, the safety valve of which was stopped by a man sitting
upon it or holding it down purposely; he said, “ We will have a
good start and surprise them, we will go off so well ;’—the con-
sequence was, that the boiler blew up and killed and weunded a
very considerable number of people; I believe to the extent of
forty-five, but I am not certain.
Was that a cast- or a wrought-iron boiler ?—It was wrought:
jron. *
Can you suggest the means by which a high pressure engine
can he rendered safe on board a vessel ?—It can only be rendered
safe by having the form of the boiler, such as I have described,
and the cylindric part of a limited diameter, with a competent
thickness of wrought metal, either iron or copper, and the plates
secured to each other by a double line of rivets; it is also re-
quisite that there should be two safety-valves, each laden with
any determinate weight per superficial inch of the narrowest part
of the seat of the valye; one of those valves should be at a
‘ iberty
on Steam-Boats. : 169
liberty to be raised at the pleasure of the manager, because some-
times it is expedient to raise it; the other should be under a
cover of such description as not to be opened at all, at the dis-
cretion of the engineer, but with sufficient apertures for the
emission of the steam, and for any of the passengers to see that
the valve is not made fast. It is also requisite that there should be
a mercurial gauge of not less than an inch in diameter, and whose
longest limb shall not be greater than two inches and'one-eighth
for every pound per inch upon the safety-valve ; it is necessary,
by occasional inspection, to take care that the mereury does not
stiffen by oxidation, occasioned by the heat and motion to which
it is in a slight degree liable.
Do you conceive that a high pressure engine thus guarded
might be used on board a steam-boat with safety to the passen-
gers ?—Yes, so long as the boiler is kept in order ; but the boiler’s
bottom is liable to erode or consume by the action of the fire,
and therefore requires watching.
How long do you think a boiler would last under the action
of fire ?>—A boiler may last twelve months safely, provided its
bottom be made of charcoal iron, beat not rolled, because there
is a great deal of difference in the grain.
~ Would you not always recommend a boiler to be made of
wrought metal on board steam-boats ?—On board steam-boats
I would recommend them all to be made either of copper or
charcoal iron plates beat under the hammer and not rolled; the
resistance of cylindric boilers will be in the inverse ratio of their
diameters.
[Mr. William Chapman was again called in on a future day, at
his own request, and stated, that when he was asked as to loco-
motive engines, he omitted to say that the diameter of their
boiler was in general four feet, little more or less; that many of
them are formed of cast iron, and several of malleable iron, and
that the ends of several of these latter are of cast iron curved
outwards; that in no one of them does the fire act upon the ex-
ternal part of the boiler, but is placed in a malleable iron tube
which passes through the boiler; a cast-iron boiler, however,
being found far too heavy, the new loco-motive engines are al-
ways supplied with malleable iron boilers. }
Mr. Puitie Taytor’s Evidence.
Will you be so good as to state what is your occupation ?—A
manufacturing chemist.
Where do you reside ?>—~At Bromley in Middlesex.
You are conversant with the nature of steam-engines ?—My
attention has been directed to the use of steam from a desire to
, apply
170 Report of the Select Committee
apply it in my own business, not as a moving power, but, for the
purpose of communicating heat to different fluids, for which pur-
pose I have required high pressure steam. I have a patent for
a mode of applying high pressure steam to vessels of the largest
capacity; and as in this ease all danger depends on the con-
struction of the boiler, I should. wish to say a little on these boilers
which | have found to be the most trust-worthy. I come quite
unprejudiced as to any material, and as to any form; for if | could
meet with a boiler which would answer the purpose I have in
view better than that now used by me, I would adopt it; there-
fore I shall give the Committee only such facts as have come
within my own immediate knowledge. 1 have no wish to re-
commend any particular construction,
Will you be so good as to state from your knowledge, what
species of boiler for a high pressure engine you would recom-
mend in regard to safety ?—I consider the first and most mate-
rial point to attend to in the construction of high pressure boilers
is, that the diameter of such boilers should be small in propor-
tion to their capacity; and that as small a proportion of the
external surface of the boiler as possible should be exposed to
the destructive action of the fire; and that the portion of the
hoiler so exposed, should be so situated and guarded, that in case
of explosion the least possible mischief would arise. In those
boilers which I have made use of, no portion of the boiler is ex-
posed to the action of the fire without its being constantly co-
vered with water; and the fire is applied under an arch of not
more than two feet and a half in diameter ; this provides against
any extensive rent taking place in the event of explosion. ‘The
boilers I have generally employed are constructed of malleable
iron, commonly known by the name of charcoal iron, riveted
together and secured by strong wrought-iron belts. From ob-
serving the danger arising from the introduction of flat cast-iron
ends, | bave terminated the ends of the boilers by wrought-iron
ones nearly hemispherical; this mode of construction, as far as
my experience goes, combines more strength and durability than
any other. The precautions I have made use of to guard against
the misuse of such boilers, have been by adapting to them two
safety-valves ; one under the control of the engine-man, the
other secured in a strong cast-iron case, locked down and loaded
with such a weight as would suffer the steam to escape when it
had arrived at an improper degree of expansive force. In order
to add to the security given by safety-valves, I have likewise in’
every instance attached to the boiler a inuaicial column, the
bore of which is proportioned to the size of the boiler; and I
should consider an iron tube of an inch diameter sufficient ta
guard
on Steam-Beats, 17}
guard against accident, when applied to a boiler four feet in
diameter and twenty feet in length, because the limit given by
such a column has always been far within the limit of absolute
safety. The length of the external limb of the mercurial gauge
has in all cases been proportioned to the strength of the boiler
and the force to be applied, taking care that the expansive force
of the steam would displace the mercury long before any dan-
gerous expansive force would arise. In order to guard against
the boiler’s-being injured by the action of the fire, from a de-
ficient quantity of water in the boiler, I have inserted a leaden
rivet in such a situation that it would melt as soon as it was un-
covered by the water, and produce an opening which would suf-
fer the escape of the steam. Although I have made use of boilers
of this construction, I consider cast-iron boilers safe, provided
their yarious parts are made of small diameters in proportion to
their capacity; such for instance as those constructed by Mr,
Woolf.
From your knowledge of the subject, do you think you can
take upon yourself to say, that a high pressure engine with a
boiler constructed on the principles you have just now detailed,
would be completely safe for the use of passage -boats? — I
think equally safe with those called condensing engines, because
a greater attention to strength is always paid in the construction
of high pressure boilers than in the construction of low pressure
boilers, in proportion to the pressure they have to sustain.
Have not very great improvements been recently made in high
pressure engines, by which the general mining and manufac-
turing interests of the country have been greatly benefited ?—I
think very important ones; the high pressure engine, as con-
structed by Mr. Woolf, employs not only the expansive force of
the steam, but also that power which is acquired by its conden-
sation; and the effect in Cornwall has been, that engines on this
construction have done double the quantity of work with the
same quantity of fuel,
Does your own experience lead you to conclude, that the high
pressure engine in general js less expensive in point of consump-
tion of fuel ?—If well constructed they are decidedly ceeconomical
engines with regard to the consumption of fuel,
You mean then by this, that the advantage of the high pres
sure in point of ceconomy in fuel is not confined to engines of
any one particular construction?—Certainly; I mean it is not
so confined,
Have you any connexion whatever with Mr. Woolf ?—None
whateyer ; I am not personally known to him.
Have you any reason to suppose that the high pressure steam+
engines are already arrived at the degree of perfection of much
é they
172 Report of the Select Committee
they are susceptible ?—Certainly not; Mr. Woolf’s engine has
been much simplified since its first invention, and my opinion is,
it will be still further improved.
You would then consider any measure which should tend to
impede the use of high pressure engines to be injurious to the
country ?—Certainly, I should.
Mr. Henry Maupesiay’s Evidence.
What is your profession ?>—I am an engineer, residing at Lam-
beth.
You construct steam-engines?—Yes, a great many.
Are you at all acquainted with the circumstances attending
the explosion of the steam-engine at Norwich ?—Yes, I am.
Have you been there since this accident ?—No.
Did you know the steam-boats there before the accident ?—
Yes ; because I made a steam-boat for Yarmouth.
_ Was the steam-boat you made, a high pressure or a low pres=
sure engine ?—A low pressure engine.
Will you be so good as to tell the Committee, what is your
opinion with regard to the proper construction of those engines,
to secure the passengers on board those boats ?—I never consi-
dered high pressure engines were applicable to boats, because
the purpose of a high pressure engine is to save water, and water
cannot be wanted on board a vessel] ; the difference between the
one and the other makes no saving either in the weight or expense,
taking it ultimately, particularly when steam-boats are properly
contrived. As far as my opinion goes as to steam-engines and
steam-boats, I would not go from here to Margate in a high
pressure boat, because there are many reasons why that may be-
come much more dangerous, and no more advantageous to the
public generally or to the individuals. A low pressure engine is
of very high power; a high pressure engine has a higher power
in proportion to its height of steam. It is pretty well under-
stood, that a gentleman who engages in a steam-boat company
seldom attends to the engine himself, but leaves it to his men.
I built the Regent steam-boat last summer with a low pressure
engine ; there was a dispute between two men, and one of them
swore that he would blow his boiler up, but he would beat the
Regent in coming up. The man certainly did exert himself as
much as he could,and kep this steam as highas he could get it, and
it flew out of the safety-valve very frequently,and he hurt his boiler
materially from doing so, but he did not beat the Regent; but
if it had been a high pressure engine, he would either have beat
her or blown up his boiler, hecause he had the power in his own
hand.
Had it been a high pressure engine, and the boiler properly
constructed,
on Steam- Boats. x i73
eonstructed, with sufficient safety-valves adapted to it, the ope-
ration of which the man could not impede, would it have been
liable to accident ?—I feel some difficulty in answering such a
question as that, because I am afraid that there are so many
technical terms in engine-making, and reasons why safety-valves
should be attended to, that I doubt whether they would net go
to more evil by the man not having access to them than by theit
being open to him.
If there was one safety-valve which was not accessible to the
engineer, and another which was, would not that danger be pre-
vented ?—I would beg to explain, by saying, that on board the
Regent, which has a large boiler, I found it necessary to have
two safety-valves, and sometimes I put three safety-valves: to
make it quite easy for the man to move the valve, I have a sort
of bell-pull going down to the place where he stokes, to pull it
up every hour if he pleases, to keep it in action, because it is
clear the spindle may corrode and stick fast fot want of use.
Supposing it not touched once a week, it is not a safety-valve
any longer, because a very little friction will add a great matiy
pounds weight to the opposition the steam ought to meet with.
According to your experience and knowledge, would a low
pressure engine be safe in most cases that can occur ?—I never
knew a low pressure engine unsafe, but it appears that high
pressure engines have been. :
Would a high pressure engine, under the same circumstances,
be equally safe ?—Certainly not.
Do you conceive there is any difficulty in constructing a safety-
valve in such a manner as that the engineer shall be able to keep
it in constant fitness for its action, without having a power to
fasten it down and prevent it from acting ?—I conceive that the
same motive which would induce the engineer to work it with an
improper pressure, would induce him to leave it untouched, that
it might have an improper pressure. I beg to state, that there
is not that difference between a high pressure and a low pressure
engine, as to its power, that is generally supposed; because it is
understood, that the steam in the boiler is kept at from four to
six pounds upon the inch, but from two and a half to four is
quite abundant for any use a low pressure engine can be wanted
for: then, if an engine is in any thing like working order, there
is a vacuum formed by the engine itself, by the construction,
that causes an addition of ten pounds the inch. On the lowest
calculation, those two added together, make fourteen pounds ;
if you take high pressure steam at forty pounds the inch, you do
not, in my opinion, get additional force in proportion to the risk
incurred ; because we well know, that if the boiler be of cast
iron, faults will unavoidably arise in casting which you ¢gannot
: see,
174 Report of the Select Committee
see, which eause explosions or breakings, and which could not bé
calculated upon.
Is there any thing which prevents the engineer from fastening
down or over-weighting the valves of a common condensing en-
gine ?—It would he folly for him to do so.
Is there any thing which prevents him ?—Certainly not.
Supposing the valves tc be so fastened down, doés not the
engine immediately become unsafe ? —Yes, certainly it must; but
it would be folly to fasten it down, because, if the engineer be at
all acquainted with his business, he must know, that if the steam
be raised beyond five or six pounds per inch in a condensing
engine, the power of the engine will not thereby be at all in-
ereased; the condensing property of the engine does not consist
in a higher pressure of steam.
What is your opinion as to the comparative safety of cast and
wrought metal used in boilers ?—I consider that wrought iron is
extremely safe, compared to cast iron.
Then at all events, it is your opinion, that in steam-boats
boilers of wrought metal should be used in preference to cast ?
—No doubt about it.
Do you think there is any material difference between the use
of copper and wrought iron ?—No, excepting in the greater des
gree of corrosion to y which iron is liable.
Are you aware of there being any considerable difference in
the consumption of coals, necessary to produce any given power
in condensing and high pressure engines ?—I consider that the
one will work with as little coal as the other; in all high pres-
sure engines and condensing engines I have heard of, I find little
or no difference, and those who have them tell me they burn as
much coal in the high pressure engine as in the low pressure en=
ie I have understcod that Woolf’s engine does save coal.
Do you know that to be the fact >—I do not, because J never
attended any experiments ; but I have heard “i from so many
people that I cannot but believe the fact is, they save coal.
If a high pressure steam-engine had a wrought-metal boiler;
either of iron or copper, constructed by a competent engineer,
with safety-valves in proper order, and a mercurial gauge, should
you then think yourself in any danger in a steam-boat propelled
by such an engine ?—Certainly not, if a competent person had
the superintendence of it.
Mr. AtuxanvderR GaLtoway’s Evidence.
What is your profession and plice of abode ?—I am a me-
chanist and engineer, residing in Holborn.
Do you know any thing of that paper [showing @ paper to the
witness] 2—I have seen it.
Do
on Steam- Boats. 175
Do you know by whom it was published?—TI do not know; I
have heard it was done by the proprietors of some of the steam-
boats ; the letter I wrote was sent to the Morning Chronicle 5
it was only within the last three days I saw it in that form.
Have ycu been employed at all in constructing steam-engines
for steam-boats ?—I have not.
Were you acquainted at all with the accident at Norwich ?—
No; but what I have heard.
The object of this Committee being to insure the safety of the
passengers on board steam-boats, will you favour them with your
opinion as an engineer, what means are best adapted to insure
that safety?—Ii should certainly recommend, that for steam-
boats, the condensing engines should be used in preference to
high pressure engines, seid I will give you my reasons why I do
so. In the first place, the great advantage that has been pro-
mised from a high pressure engine is, that it can be worked in @
situation where water cannot be procured, and therefore, under
this circumstance it is for such a situation a valuable machine ;
but in situations where water can be readily procured, it is not
so. And in reference to the comparative price between a high
pressure engine and a low pressure engine, and in reference to
the space that it occupies, and in reference to the superintendence
that it requires, I am decidedly convinced no ceconomy is pro-
duced. Speaking to it asa matter of safety, it will be necessary
for me to say, that experience has fully proved, that the maxi-
mum of force to be obtained by a condensing engine, is when
the steam is rarefied from three to six pounds on the inch; the
engine is by far more efficient than when the steam is rarefied
up beyond; and it will appear equally clear, that whether it he
a cast-iron boiler or a wrought-iron boiler, or a copper boiler,
the force of the engine is better performed by steam at three
pounds and a half, than it is at any increased expansive force ;
the boiler being subject only to three instead of six pounds, 1 at
‘must be less liable to explode or burst at that than at an increased
‘expansive force. I should further say, that every man that is
called to work a condensing steam-engine, knows, that when his
steam is at three pounds and a half, ib performs a greater quan-
tity of labour than at any other time ; for if you increase it you
throw a vast labour on the air- -pump and the condenser, # and retard
the engine: therefore, a man has no inducement to increase the
expansive force of the steam, he knowing that no useful end can
be obtained by so doing, but giving himself additional labour
and consuming more fuei, and performing less work. *I should
also wish to state, that 1 yesterday made a sketch of what ap-
peared to me to be a proper and efficient boiler for a steam- eo
without
176 Report of the Select Committee
without reference to the character of the engine at all, whether
it was a condensing or high pressure engine. All boilers on
, board; steam-boats should have the fire in the interior of the
boiler, because it is of very little importance, when you are upon
ethe subjec: of safety, whether the passengers are to be endangered
by an explosion, or whether the vessel is to he weakened in its
-timbers or essential securities by the improper application of the
fire to the boiler: therefore, I invariably recommend, that the
fire should be ‘contained in the interior of the boiler, and that
‘there should be an additional safety-valve, which should be solely
‘subject to the superintendence of the proprietor, and that the
‘manager of the machine should have no possible access to it.
That you mean to apply, whether high pressure or low pres-
‘sure boilers are used ?—Both; because I am quite aware, that
-if a boiler in a steam-boat is to have the fire to operate upon it
vexternally, although you may not explode the engine, you may
so far destroy the vessel that carries the engine by burning its
timbers, without the knowledge of the individuals to whose care
the boat is intrusted, as to be highly injurious and misehievous
to the safety of the passengers. I should certainly recommend
‘a wrought-metal boiler in preference to a cast-iron boiler ; and
the reason is clear, that the operation of casting, however skil-
fully managed, is always an uncertain process. An oecurrence
took place a few days ago, which very much staggered me; I
had a large press of cast iron, which it was necessary to break
up, and in the interior of a bar which was probably eight inches
‘by twelve, there was a cavity in the centre of four inches dia-
meter, with no external communication.
-« Do you think that a safety-valve may not be so constructed,
_ a8 that its operation shall not be impeded in any degree by the
ase engineer to whose care the vessel is committed, and yet with a
tolerable certainty of its operating to all its proper intents and
purposes ?—If an additional safety-valve was applied to a boiler,
and that safety-valve placed beyond the power of being inter-
fered with by any person but the proprietor, then the boiler
would be secure from explosion, if the safety-valve should be
judiciously loaded ; but if, that safety-valve was even placed be-
yond the reach of the operator, and at the same time injudiciously
loaded, a calamity might take place the same as if no such se-
curity existed.
_. Allowing thet under all possible circumstances a condensing
engine should be the most safe, what is your opinion as to the
sufficient safety of a high pressureengine, of which the boiler and
safety-valves should be constructed in. the manner which you _
have just nowdescribed ?—I should consider a highypressure en-
2 ey ate Ren ed aera >, gine,
mS ;
<
Fy #
A +
a .
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oa
; ,
on Steam-Boats. 177
fine, under «such circumstances using the expansive force to
forty pounds to the inch, and not beyond forty pounds, would
be a safe and efficient engine.
Under all the circumstances which at present exist in the ma-
nufacture and management of a condensing and high pressure
engine, with a view to the safety of passengers in a steam-boat,.
which of them would you recommend ?—-Under all the cireum--
stances of the case, I should most decidedly recommend a con-
densing engine, a condensing engine with a wrought-iron boiler;
because when cast iron becomes subject to high expansion and
contraction, the constant repetition of these effects in a very
great degree impairs the strength of the boiler.
That mischief would not be incidental to a wrought-iron
boiler ?—Certainly not. I should venture to say, that all en-
gines itssteam-boats should be subject to regulation and inspec-
tion by competent persons ;—a steam-boat must have a register,
and before such register should be granted, the engine should be
inspected, to see whether it is of a character to deserve its being
considered safe.
What is your opinion as to the expediency of adding a mer-
curial gauge ?>—By no means do I consider it an efficient and
convenient apparatus on board a boat ; it would be constantly in
the way, and it would require a great column of mercury to make
it safe; and that such a quantity may be liable to do mischief if
blown out. A
Has it ever happened to you, to form any calculation of the
proportion which a mercurial gauge ought to bear to the dia-
meter of a boiler?—I have not; but it will depend upon the
expansive force to which the boiler is to be brought up, as well
as to the capacity of the boiler; because, if you were to put a
mercurial gauge to give merely the pressure on the boiler, that:
would not be adequate to carry off the quantity of steam that
may be generated in a mischievous way.
What is your opinion as to the comparative consumption of
coals in condensing and high pressure engines, with respect to
the work produced ?—I am quite satisfied, that taking for granted
that both engines were judiciously formed, the one would take
as much fuel as the other, there would be no material saving, if
any; but if you associate the two principles together, as in the
case of Woolf’s engine, there will be a considerable saving ; unite
the high pressure with a condensing engine, and there is a great
saving, but in their abstract characters there is none.
Mr. Joun Brairuwarre’s Evidence. '
What is your profession and place of abode ?—I reside in New
Road, Fitzroy-square, and am an engine-maker and engineer.’
Vol, 50, No, 233, Sept, 1817. M The
178 Report of the Select Commiitee
The Committee being desired to report upore-the safety of
steam-boats, and upon the safety only, they will be much obliged
to you to communicate what you know upon the subject ?—Re-
specting high pressure steam, which I shall confine myself to at
this moment, I will engage to make a boiler, or direct one to be
made, which I will defy any engineer or other person to blow up
.or burst ; and I have lately erected five boilers; and I am ready
to prove ‘to any gentleman, and even to any engineer, that they
cannot destroy them.
Upon what principle were those boilers constructed ?—Those
boilers that I have fitted up, with the different apparatus for
making them secure, were made of wrought iron; but I do not
mean to say cast-iron boilers cannot be made secure. I recom-
mended to Mr. Martineau, for whom I erected them, that as
there had been an accident in his neighbourhood, he ought to
have a boiler to bear three times the pressure he meant to put
upon it; and if it did bear that pressure, and they applied two
safety- -valves with a mercurial steam- -gauge, properly weighted
and adjusted (one of those safety-valves should be at the will of
the person about the boiler, and the other no man should be
able to get at),it would be impossible to explode a boiler of that
description. J saw the boiler after it was exploded at Wellclose-
square, and alsa conversed with one of the men that was saved,
who told me, that he had carried an additional weight to put on
the safety-valve just before it exploded, that the mercurial gauge
there was plugged up, so that it was useless; besides which, in-
stead of the safety-valve being weighted equal to forty-five pounds,
they added a double weight which increased it to ninety pounds
weight upon an inch, and the boiler was very improperly made.
I conceive that a steam-engine boiler, constructed as it ought to
be constructed (I do not mean to say if you put a boiler into the
hands of men not acquainted with it, without the proper safety-
valves, there may not be danger)—but if properly constructed
there is no danger.
Would you not recommend on board steam-boats, wrought-
metal boilers to be used in preference to cast ?>—Certainly; I
have made some discoveries myself in the boilers I have put up,
which makes them perfectly safe.
Do you know any thing respecting the comparative comsump-.
tion of coals in high and low pressure engines ?—Not from my
own actual experience, only from what gentlemen have told me
where I have done business.
Mr. Joun Hatw’s Evidence.
Where do you live ?—At Dartford.
What are you by profession ?>—An engineer and millwright.
Have
2
‘on Steam-Boats. 179
Have you given any attention to the construction of engines
for steam-boats ?—I never have; I have made steam-engines,
but not for steam -boats.
The object of this Committee being to inquire into the con-
struction of engines for steam-boats for the safety of passengers,
have you any thing to communicate to the Committee on that
subject ?—I have only to observe, that I make them in cast iron,
and I have proved them by an hydraulic press made for the pur-
pose, and have gone as high as 250 pounds to an inch, and that
I considered enough ; nothing happened; and I mean the next
time to try what they will bear, and I have no doubt they will
bear from 700 to 1000 pounds to.an inch, for I believe they can
be made now stronger than wrought-iron boilers ; wrought-iron
boilers being riveted together, cannot be so strong as those east
in a solid mass.
May not there be some imperfection in cast iron, which may
not be discoverable without an accident happening ?—It is
scarcely possible, if it undergoes the trial I speak of by pressure
before it is put to work.
May not that trial to which it may be exposed, though no ac-
cident happens immediately from the trial, be injurious to the
boiler itself?—If it is made so as to be strong enough to stand
the pressure of 500 pounds upon the inch when it only wants
fifty, I suppose that proves it to be quite out of danger.
Are you aware that there is a difference between trial made by
water-pressure at a certain temperature, and the exposure of
cast iron to the action of fire repeatedly, by which the metal
is heated to a very high degree, and consequently expanded and
then cooled again down to a temperature very far indeed below
that which it was before exposed to?—I have seen the effect of
that; a boiler I have made has been composed of three tubes,
one a large one and two smaller ones below; those lower tubes
which are exposed most to the fire have cracked generally by
cooling after the engine has done working; I have known that
in three or four instances; perhaps, in an hour after the engine
has done working, the tubes below have cracked and the other
not. )
Are you not aware that the tubes which were so cracked by
the application of fire, might have stood the water-pressure of
which you before spoke, to almost any conceivable amount ?—
Yes, I suppose they would.
~ In case of explosion,—which would produce the greatest mis-
chief, that of a cast or of a wrought-iron boiler ?—I suppose the
greatest danger would be in the wrought-iron boiler. :
For what reason ?—Because the cast iron uniformly cracks at
the bottom underneath the large part of the boiler; the pk
M 2. tubes.
180° Report of the Select Committee
tubes have cracked on the under side, so that the water went
away. .
Did you never hear of any instance where a cast-iron boiler
has exploded in another way ?—I have heard of the late misfor-
tune at Norwich, and that has been sufficiently accounted for to
me, by its being made so very improperly.
Have not you heard of other instances of cast-iron boilers ex-
ploding ?—I believe only one.
Is not a cast-iron boiler liable to be exploded in fragments ?
—lI should think it would never happen, if it was made as cast-
iron boilers ought to be made; J suppose we might make a cast-
iron boiler that would explode, and go to pieces in that way, if
it was done on purpose.
Have you any other suggestions to make to the Committee ?
—As to safety-valves, they may be made as safe as can be con-
ceived of, because they will let the steam escape when it is of an
improper height, and these engines I am making will save in fuel
very materially; they are on Woolf’s principle; they will save
two-fifths of the fuel.
Is it not easy to adjust a safety-valve to a boiler, which shall
not be aecessible to the engineer directing the machinery, which
shall sufficiently protect the boiler from mischief ?—Yes, it is
guite practicable.
And so to adjust it that it will always act ?—Once adjusted it
will always act, and always be to be depended upon.
Then you would recommend, in any boiler, such a safety-
valve to be employed ?—Certainly.
Besides another under the direction of the man who works the
engine ?—Yes.
Mr. ALEXANDER TiLLocnu’s Evidence.
Will you state where you reside ?—At Islington.
And what is your profession?—I am editor of the Philosophical
Magazine, and sometimes I am called on to act as an engineer ;
and I am editor and proprietor of the Star newspaper.
Will you be so good, as you know the object for which we are
met, with regard to the safety of persons in steam-boats, to men-
tion what suggestions you have to make to the Committee on
the subject? —My opinion is, that attending to what should be
attended to in every steam-engine, and employing proper en-
gineers, a steam-engine would be perfectly safe, whether with
high pressure or low pressure. . The boilers ought always to be
furnished with safety-valves ; and if they suspect the possibility
of having a stupid man, one of the valves should be covered and
aut of his reach with a box over it, but perforated, so that you
may see when the steam operates on it. A meréurial valve is
also
on Steam-Boats. 18]
also very good; that is an inverted siphon, with a column of
mercury proportioned to the purposes for which it is to be em-
ployed.
Do you apprehend much danger to arise, in case of explosion,
from that mercury if it was employed ?—No, because the tube is
always perpendicular, and if the mercury shoots out, it goes away
and falls down in rain; I am of opinion, a boiler may be made
safe either of wrought or cast iron, but for great strain 1 would
prefer cast iron, contrary to the opinion of many people, and the
reason I would prefer it is the same for which it is preferred in
making canon. It is not possible to get thick plates of wrought
jron perfect throughout, and you trust at last to rivets in joining
them, but cast-iron boilers can be made of any strength you
please; instead. of having a boiler that will stand sixty, it may
be made to stand six hundred, of either wrought or cast iron.
Another reason why I would prefer cast iron is, that the sheet
jron corrodes much quicker and destroys by oxidation, so that a
boiler may be safe when first set up and stand its proof, but very
~ soon become unserviceable, or at least comparatively so. Boilers
should always be cylindrical tubes, and for an obvious reason,
capacity should be got by length and number rather than by
diameter. There is no more danger to be apprehended from
steam as to bursting, than from the employment of condensed
air, only that the water may scald ; but as to the danger of the
fragments being scattered about, it is the same with air as with
steam, and yet all the engineers constantly employ cast-iron re-
ceivers, condensers, or air-vessels where pressure is wanted.
Is not cast iron liable to suffer some material injury from the
contraction and expansion by heat and subsequent cooling ?—
Whether a boiler be made of wrought or of cast iron the metal
expands and contracts, and expansion or contraction is more or
less injurious in proportion as it is often repeated, but it does not
‘prejudice a boiler made of cast more than one made of wrought
jron.
Is not it more injurious to cast than wrought-iron boilers ?—
No, I do not think it is. z
In case of accident by explosion in a cast and wrought-iron
boiler, which, in your opinion, would be attended with the
greatest mischief to the persons about it ?—If an actual explo-
sion takes place, 1 should think from the cast iron; but I con-
ceive that a properly constructed cast-iron boiler would be
stronger, and therefore would not explode so soon. A boiler
should be proved with cold water, if it is to be applied to high
pressure,
Are you not aware that cast iron, notwithstanding the greatest
possible attention of the founder, is liable to cavities in the in-
M3 terior
182 Memoir of Alraham Gottlob Werner,
terior substanee of the metal, which renders it uncertain when
exposed to great degrees of heat ?—-There may be cavities m cast
iron, but a boiler being proved to a strain beyond that it is to
be exposed to by heat, the safety of the boiler is secured; for
the temperature never can be at that point which will endanger.
a fracture from that circumstance.
Do you mean by that answer, to say that the rarefaction of
the air in that cavity may not be so great by the heat as to oc-
casion its bursting ?—It never can, because the air that produced
that cavity was at a white heat at the time the iron closed upon
it, and it never can be brought to such a heat. in working a
boiler;—my opinion is, that by a very high proof at the com-
mencement, and attention to it, you may always have a safe
boiler of cast iron.
[To be continued. ]
XXVII. Memoir of AsRauam Gortion Werner, late Professor.
of Mineralogy at Frieberg*.
Asranam GorrLtos WERNER was born on the 25th of Sep-
tember 1750. His father, who was inspector of an iron-work
at Wehrau, on the Queiss, in Upper Lusatia, intended him from
his early youth for a similar vocation. He first went to school
at Bunzlau, where he received however but very scanty instruc-
tion. In order fully to qualify himself for his intended pro-
fession, he went first for some years to the Mineralogical Aca-
demy at Frieberg, and then to the University of Leipsig, where
he applied himself to the study of natural history more than to
that of jurisprudence; and in respect to the former used to boast
in later years of his intimacy with two distinguished naturalists
of Leipsig, Mr. John Charles Gebler, and his brother John Sa-
muel Traugott Gehler. Even while at the University he em-
ployed himself on the doctrine of the external characteristics of
fossils, in which a singular quickness of perception was of great
use to him; and published there, in the year 1774, the well-
known work (on the external characteristics of fossils) which is
still considered as the basis of his whole oryktognosis, but of
which he could never be induced to print a new and enlarged
edition, because he feared disputes, and had not in fact con-
cluded his researches. Soon after he was invited to Frieberg,
to have the care of the cabinet of natural history there, and to
read lectures upon it. Here his mind, which was early exercised
in observation and classification, found the most welcome ma-
terials. ere, daily extending the bounds of his science, and
* From The Literary Gazette. ,
supporting
late Professor of Mineralogy at Frieberg. 183
supporting its foundation by the surest external distinctive marks,
he formed that system which, afterwards embracing also the
geognosis which was peculiarly his own, and forming an intimate
connexion with all branches of the art of mining, gradually con-
quered all opposition, and raised its inventor to the rank of the
creator of a new mineralogy, which might be supported and ex-
tended, but not rendered useless by the crystallographic theory
of Haiiy, and the chemical theory uf Vauquelin and others. His
peculiar talent for observation was animated by the most lively
fancy, assisted by the most extensive reading in every. branch of
knowledge connected with his own, and excited by daily inter-
course with ingenious travellers aud foreigners, who chiefly vi-
sited Frieberg on Werner’s account. (We may instance only
the Englishman Hawkins.) The classification in genera and
species, and for the most part ingenious appellations of minerals
down to the newest egron, is peculiarly his. ‘‘ Werner,” says
Leonhard, in his eloquent lecture on the state of mineralogy,
** was for the doctrine of the recognition of simple fossils, em-
bracing with uncommon ingenuity all the experience of his age,
what Winckelmann had been to the arts. What, before him,
were all the endeavours of Wallerius and Linneus !”” How soon
was he obliged to give up Cronstedt, who is no where satisfac-
tory! Only too scrupulous, conscientiousness prevented him
from publishing the oryktognostical tables, which have been
finished, and quite ready for the press these four years. The
attempt of the ingenious Berzelius, of Stockholm, at classifica-
tion by discovering the laws of combination of the elements, did
not indeed shake his belief in the method of recognition by means
of the external characteristics; yet he at last thought that a
mutual conciliation was possible, and reserved the first analysis
of the latest writings of Berzelius, for the next winter. Block’s
work was known to him, He approved of his ingenious scholar’s
(G, H. Schubert’s) essays (Ausgleichungsversuche). In the
geognosis, first systematically deduced by him from the rough
mass, crystalline structure, and the chemical relations of the
contents, may be called in, together with the ties of external af-
finity; but the method created by Werner is the only satisfactory
one, however much may yet be wanting to it, to become a com-
plete system of the earth. His predecessor Charpentier’s doubts
respecting Werner’s theory have never been able to shake it.
His idea of formations, one of the most fruitful of consequences,
and the most ingenious, in Werner’s geognosis, has been ad-
mirably developed by his scholar Steffens in Breslau; and his
formation of the floetz mountains of Thuringen, well supported
by the excellent Von Freiesleben, in the theory of the copper-slate
mountain (Kupferschiefergebirge). Werner sustained an obs-
M4 tinate,
184 Memoir of Alraham Gottlob Werner,
tinate, but for that reason the more honourable contest with the
voleanists. Now, no well-informed person will consider the ba-
salt and other fleetz mountains as of volcanic origin. Werner’s
theory of the older and newer formation of mountains, by the
waters, stands immoveable; and a satisfactory link between them
is afforded in the mountains of the interval of transition. Even
the new chemical discoveries of the kalimetals may be made to
accord with it. Another science, Mining, on which Werner used
also to lecture, was rendered extremely clear to the attentive
scholar, by his luminous explanation and by the reduction of the
most complicated machinery to the most simple propositions, at
the same time drawing all the figures on his table. Indefatigable
application, insatiable thirst of knowledge, enriched his retentive
memory with every thing that history and philology, in the most
extensive sense, can offer to the attentive inquirer. No science
was foreign to him. All served as a basis to his studies, which
were constantly directed to natural philosophy, and the know-
ledge of the earth and its inhabitants. He always advanced be-
fore his age, and often knew what others only presumed. After
1779 and 1780, when he first lectured on oryktognosis and
geognosis, at Frieberg, he was heard with gratitude by scholars
from all parts of Europe. Never contented with what was dis-
covered, always seeking something new, he rather formed
scholars who wrote than wrote himself. But many MSS, almost
wholly ready for the press are included in his fine library, collec-
tion of coins and MSS. bequeathed on the day of his death to
the Mineralogical Academy, for 5000 crowns. In his lectures
he had only heads of the subject before him. In lecturing he
used to abandon himself, as he was accustomed to say, to the
inspiration of his mineralogical muse; and when his spirit ho-
vered over the waters and the strata, he often became animated
with lofty enthusiasm. But he caused his lectures to be written
out by approved scholars; and by revising himself what they had
thus written after him, made it, properly speaking, a MS. A
great many parts of his lectures have been made public by others,
among which may be reckoned what Andic, at Brunn in Mo-
ravia, has published in the valuable journal Hesperus. But no-
thing bears the confirmation of the seal of the master. What is’
particularly desirable is the publication of his manuscript on
Mineralogical Geography (which he only once drew up for a
particular lecture), and upon the Literature of Mineralogy, in
which he solved the difficulties of the ancient classic mineralogy,
and gave incomparable illustrations of, Pliny’s Natural History.
He was like a father to all his scholars, to whom he was a mo-
del not only as a man of science, but as a moral character.
Having filled, from the year 1792, a high situation in pias
)
late Professor of Mineralogy at Frieberg. 185
of the Mines, he hada great share in the direction both of the
Mineralogical Academy and of the administration in general.
Two things must be mentioned here with particular honour—the
works begun in 1786, to furnish a great part of the deeper mines
with water, in order to get water for driving the wheels. This
astonishing aqueduct, particularly the artificial canal of Doer-
renthal, with its subterraneous bricked channels, already extend-
ing above aleague, are in the main due to him, though Scheuch-
Jer made the plan, and Lampe the calculations. By the:con-
tinued support of the ever active king of Saxony, this great work
still proceeds in the most prosperous manner. The Amalgama-
tion works, twice built by the excellent Charpentier, chief of the
Council of the Mines, (the first building was maliciously burnt
down,) and for ever secured by most ingenious fire-engines from
similar accidents, are indeed unique:—a miracle to all who be-
hold them, and a jewel in the crown of the Saxon art of mining,
and of the unostentatious energy with which the sovereign of
Saxony caused the most expensive undertakings to be executed
in silence. Less known and visited by foreigners, though on it
depends the continuation of the mining in Saxony, is this un-
dertaking of canals and aqueducts, which has already cost above
half a million of crowns, and on which more than a thousand
men are employed. ‘The mineralogical survey and description
of all Saxony, divided into districts, which has been prosecuted
for these twenty years, under scholars of Werner, and includes
the forest of Thuringen, and even a part of the Harz, uniting
too with the mountains on the frontiers of Bohemia and Silesia,
will one day give our country a mineralogical map, which for
exactness and extent surpasses what any other country can pro-
duce. This too was Werner’s work, and was constantly directed
by him in the most attentive manner. In his visits to Prague
aud Vienna, he found means to interest the Austrian government
in these mineralogical surveys ; and it is to be hoped that the en-
tightened Bavarian government, as well as the direction of the
nines in the Prussian monarchy under Werner’s grateful scholars
in Berlin and Silesia, will readily eontribute to support and com-
plete the great work which Werner so happily set on foot. In
England and Scotland excellent mincralogical maps of single
counties have lately been published according to Werner’s ideas.
His cabinet of minerals, unrivalled in completeness and scientific
arrangement, and consisting of above 100,000 specimens, has
become, in consideration ‘of a life annuity, the amount of which
devolves to the Institution itself, the property of the Frieberg
Mineratogical Academy. Werner's favourite pupil Koehler is
appointed inspector of it. Werner had received from England
an offer of 50,000 crowns for it, He sold it to his country for
40,000,
186 ' Memoir of Aliaham Gottlob Werner,
40,000; of which he reserved the interest of 33,000 as an an»
nuity ; ius made the condition, that after his own death, and
that of his only sister, who is without children, the interest should
coutinue to be annually paid to the Mineralogieal Academy; so
that this, his only daughter, as it may be called, obtains an ad-
ditional annual income of 1600 crowns,
Werner’s literary studies, like his mind, embraced every branch
of science. Every thing excited his thirst ef knowledge, and
thus it often happened that he dedicated all his attention to re-
searches which seemed to lie entirely out-of his sphere. His in-
quiries into the direction of the mountains of the first and second
formation, led him to the seat and the migrations of the aboriginal
tribes and their branches. To this were soon joined inquiries inte
the original languages and radical syllables, which he prosecuted
with the greatest acuteness, and reduced into tables. Soon
arose an universal glossary of all the radical syllables and cha-
racteristic sounds, in all the languages with whieh he was ac-
quainted ; which he studied with ardour, and ta complete his
knowledge of which, he purchased the most expensive works ;
thus he gave sixty crowns for Hickes’ Thesaurus, and but lately
eighty crowns for Walton’s great Pelyglot. His antiquarian re-
searches into the mineralogy of the ancients made him a pas-
sionate friend of archeology, and the most costly works an that
subject were purchased by him. One branch of archeology, the
numismatology of the ancients, had’ become so favourite a pur-=
suit with him during the last eight years of his life, that he pur-
chased entire collections of medals, and in a short time was in
possession of above 6000 ancient Greek and Roman coins: this
enabled him to make interesting researches into the different
mixtures of the metals, and on the arts of adulteration; and in
order to make all more clear, he arranged entire series of false
coins. An unedited silver coin of his collection, which he gave
to the great connoisseur Catauro, in Milan, is still the subject of
a numismatic controversy between the Vienna and Italian con-
noisseurs. The examination, which was to be printed, was in-
tended to be dedicated to Werner. The practice which he had
had in studying the direction of the mountains and the surface
of the earth, made him an excellent judge of ground, and in-
spired him with a great fondness for military tactics. He studied
the art of war with great diligence, read the accounts given by
masters in this branch, and acquired a fine collection of military,
books. Officers of the engineers and general staff were surpr ised
to hear him speak of the mistakes committed by the allies from
want of due knowledge of the ground, in their attack upon
Dresden in August 1813, where he happened to. be present. His
name was mentioned at the head quarters of the allied sovereigns
at.
late Professor of Mineralogy at Frielerg. 187
at Frankfort, and he was invited to repair thither; but his in-
flexible attachment to his king made him decline the invitation.
Medicine also attracted his attention, at first as lying in the cir-
cle of the sciences connected with natural history, but afterwards
in the latter years of his life, that he might be enabled to judge
of the bodily sufferings of himself and others; so that medical
books were his favourite reading, and conversation on medical
subjects what he preferred to every other. Ever ready to afford
assistance, he was happy, when*he visited a sick friend, to be
able to give medical advice, and also to judge of his own situa-
tion which he often thought precarious. ‘The danger of such
an inclination, which ean never lead to any thing further
than empiricism, is evident. His best friends, among whom we
may reckon the veteran of the healing art, the venerable Dr.
Kapp, at Dresden, sometimes reproved him for this; but it re-
mained his favourite hobby-horse. He had made a very witty
table of diseases according to the stages of human life, from in-
fancy to old age: he was a sworn enemy to vinegar and all kinds
of milk diet, hut a determined beef-eater. In other respects he
lived very temperately, drank but little wine, and was especially
and anxiously careful about warm clothing and warm rooms. He
first visited Carlsbad, when a boy of only fourteen years of age,
and had since been there forty-one times. Here, even in the
latest part of the autumn, he always acquired new strength.
Had not imperious circumstances hindered him this time from
visiting sooner the salutary fountain, which had become abso-
lutely necessary to him, he would perhaps have still lived. He
was fond of travelling, and spoke with emotion and pleasure of
his visit to Paris in 1802, where he was received with the greatest
respect. Though not indifferent to external distinctions, to the
diplomas of foreign academies and learned societies, he never
sought or asked for them, and in conversation never attached any
value to them. However, he was justly proud of being a mem-
ber of the Institute of France, and of the Wernerian Society in
England. Evenon his death-bed he learnt with joy from his former
pupil and faithful friend the Professor- of Natural History at
Edinburgh (Jamieson), that not only several mineralogical so-
cieties flourished in Great Britain, but that professorships of
mineralogy on Werner’s principles were founded at Oxford,
Cambridge, London, Glasgow, Cork, Dublin, and Belfast. At
his suggestion a union of friends of natural philosophy and mi-
neralogy was formed last winter in Dresden, where Wermer him-
self presided. He was in the best sense of the expression a citi-
zen of the world. Every newspaper that he read, excited in
him a pious wish for the happiness of mankind, for truth and
Justice, In the last days of his life, his eye was most frequently
directed
188 Memoir of Abraham Gottlob Werner.
directed to the Brasils, where the excellent Oranjo was his friend,
and many Germans now employed there his scholars. In his
thoughts he followed every traveller, and put questions to him,
in his own mind, such as Michaelis once wrote for Niebuhr and
Forskael. His house was the constant rendezvous of curious
travellers, from all countries and of all ranks; and he showed
to them all, with uncommon patience and attention, his museum,
and especially his collection of precious stones, which excites
surprise by the value and variety of the specimens. He did not,
however, like writing letters, because he preferred personal in-
tercourse to every thing, and dreaded a loss of time. This dis-
interested participation, in whatever promoted in any country
the interests of knowledge and humanity, did not hinder him
from being the most faithful son of his own country, the most
loyal reverer of his king. He refused every invitation from
abroad, (and he received at an early period several very brilliant
and enticing ones,) and was for many years contented with a
very moderate salary, supporting himself by private lectures.
“He made presents to all the academies and public schools of
Saxony, and endeavoured by this means every where to excite a
predilection for natural philosophy. Those who were most inti-
mately eonnected with him, enjoyed his tenderest interest and
care.— In his house,” said Boettiger, in his farewell address on
the eminence of Gorbitz, ‘ company daily assembled for his ad-
vice; and the same hand with which he felt the pulse of nature,
raised and supported every unfortunate. His simple manners,
his cordial cheerfulness, and his social playfulness, made him the
favourite of his fellow-citizens. When Werner entered, every
countenance brightened; the women, too, loved the company of
a man who, without insipid compliments, always had something
delicate and entertaining to say tothem. In his earlier years
his feeling heart would doubtless have made him highly suscepti-
ble of enjoying the sweets of domestic life; but he did not find
what he sought. [n later years he renounced the idea of them,
out of love to science, and was fully indemnified by the cordial
attachment of his pupils and friends. Penetrated with that true
devotion which worships God in spirit and in truth, he often
preached to his pupils the purest morality, which he confirmed
by his own example; and even in his lectures often rose with
genuine enthusiasm from the miracles of nature to their Divine
Author.—Such was the man of whom his contemporaries and
his country will be always proud; a man equally distinguished
by his rare learning, and by his goodness of heart and unspotted
character. How just is the grief caused by such a Joss! His
fairest monument is the gratitude of his pupils, who are spread
evér all the countries of the world. But his doctrines and 4
hfe
Preface to“* The Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom.” 189
life will not fail of public acknowledgement and praise. This
tribute will be given him from France, England, and Italy.
Neither must the tongue of his pupils in Germany be mute.
May Von Leonhard dedieate to him his second lecture in the
Academy at Munich! May Steffens, Ullmann, Hausmann, Mohs,
Moll, Linke, and Weiss, and above all the feeling Schubert, speak
of him! May Gilbert, who defended him against the violent
Chenevix, erect a memorial to him in his Annals!—Nor can we
doubt but some monument of marble or bronze will be raised to
his memory, to which British gratitude and generosity will gladly
subscribe, and Frieberg afford a suitable situation to be inclosed
for the purpose. For the present we hope that Bohme, or
Buchhorn, will engrave the fine portrait of him, by G. Von Ku-
gelchen, in Dresden, which was intended for his museum, for
the satisfaction of his numerous scholars and friends. His most
glorious monument, however, will always be the Mineralogical
Academy, preserved in uninterrupted activity by his worthy
scholars ; that academy which he himself sometimes called his
beloved daughter, and richly endowed; those who go thither
on a pilgrimage, those who there receive instruction, will pay
continued homage to the manes of WERNER.
XXVIII. Preface to “ The Natural History of the Mineral King-
dom. By Joun Witxiams, Mineral Surveyor, F.S.S.A.?*
Great Britain has long ago been called a fortunate island;
and it must be acknowledged that the appellation is as proper
to Britain as to any other island or country in the world. The
soil of this island is adapted to produce excellent grain and fruits,
Her downs and verdant hills are covered with store of the best
of sheep, which yield excellent fleeces for our manufactures, as
well as food for our tables. Numerous herds of beeves are fed
upon her mountains and in her meadows, and her seas and rivers
abound ‘in the most delicious fish. The climate of this island is
mild and healthy; her mountains breathe the purest air, and
abound in the sweetest springs, and her valleys are washed and
fertilized by pure and limpid streams.
This fortunate island is placed almost in the centre of the ha-
bitable world, with free and ready egress to the Mediterranean,
the Baltic, the East and West Indies, and all other seas to the
sguth and north ;—the most convenient situation for extensive
* See last Number of Phil, Mag. art. 17.
commerce,
190 Preface to “ The Natural History
cominerce, which is greatly facilitated by the safety and prodi-
gious extent of her sea-coasts, the depth and numbers of her
rivers, and the depth and numbers of her bays and sinuses all
round the island.—Her forests produce the hardiest oaks for
ship=building, and her sea-ports the best and hardiest sailors, who
are ina manner bred upon the water ; and no island in the world
ever yet arrived at such commercial “eminence, and, in conse-
quence, at such a height of power, wealth, and grandeur.
But it is not all the external productions of this island put to-
gether, favoured as she is by the goodness of her soil and situa-
tion, and assisted by the excellence of her constitution, and the.
utmost exertion of the genius of her sons, that ever was, or ever
wil] be able to raise her to such a height of power and wealth,
or to such commercial and political consequence in the world.
The soil of some other countries is as good as that of Britain,
The island of Sicily produces as excellent grain and better fruits,
and some parts of Spain as good, if not better fleeces. But Bri-
tain has other valuable sources of commerce and wealth. The
materials of many of the various and extensive manufactures of
the island, are derived from the bowels of the earth, from her
plentiful mines and coal-works.
This is the source of the materials of our most numerous and
extensive manufactures, and of the utensils of them all; and it
is our manufactures that fill and extend the channels of com-
merce, and bring home our wealth from afar.
This island is a nursery of arts, as well as of manufactures and
commerce.
It is a curious and entertaining amusement to reflect upon the
connexion and dependence of the arts upon one another, and
upon the improvements and advances of society in a polished
commercial country. A man of genius and of judgement, equal
to the task, with a stock of information and scope of thought
like Raynal, who would write a book to show us the progress
and improvements of the useful arts, the zra of remarkable dis-
coveries and their effects, and the influence which the improve-
ments of the useful arts have upon the commercial and political _
state of the nation, and of the world in general, would deserve
the thanks of his country for the extensive information, useful
instruction, and national entertainment which his book would
afford.
Perhaps it would then appear, that the great quantity and va-
riety of metal which this island produces has more influence upen
the commerce, wealth, and power of the nation than we are ac-
customed to imagine at present. But as I have neither abilities *
nor materials for such inquiries, [ will leave them to be investi-
gated
of the Mineral Kingdom.’ 191
#ated by such as are equal tothe task. This much, however, ap-
pears very obvious to ine, that great numbers are profitably em-
ployed in our mines, and in conveying the metals out of the nation;
that the value of these metals, whether raw or manufactured, is
all clear gain to the nation ; that still greater numbers are em-=
ployed to work upon the metals for all useful and ornamental
commodities, aud for all utensils, trades, and arts.
What is done without the metals? Look into the kitchens
and buffets of the great and wealthy: what profusion! And yet
all for use. When we pass through Cheapside in London, one
might imagine that all the metal of the world was furbished up
and arranged there for his inspection; and yet it is in some pro-
portion equally plentiful every where. The utility of the metals
is analogous to their abundance. The mathematical-instrument-
maker does but littie without them, and much is used by the
blacksmith, whitesmith, coppersmith, pewterer, tin-plate worker,
coachmaker, cabinet-maker, clockmaker, silversmith, engraver,
printer, &c. The quantities used by the various sorts of found-
ers, and the plumbers, are immense.
But if you would wish to have a full and comprehensive view
of the profusion and great utility of the metals, step into the work-
shops and warehouses of Birmingham. How many thousands
are there at work ! What amazing quantities of wrought goods
are stored there ready for exportation and home consumption !
There vou will see them busied in making all that is worn of
metal hy the lady and her maid, the clewn and the beau, the
horse and his rider, both for ornament and real use ; and their
warehouses contain enough for half the world, which must pass
through the channels of commerce, In short, the plenty and
variety of our own metals, and the plenty and excellent quality
of our coals, enable us to maiufacture and export more and
greater variety of metallic goods than any other nation what-
ever.
From this imperfect sketch of the profusion and extensive use
of our metals, I would infer the great importance of the British
mines to the commerce, wealth, and grandeur of the nation ; and
_ I would likewise infer the importance of improvements in the
natural history of the mineral kingdom in such a country, espe-
cially at this period.
Mineralogy is now become a fashionable study in most coun-
tries of Europe, and many useful aud entertaining discourses have
been made of late years. But the present vogue and reputation
of this branch of knowledge is nothing in comparison of its great
utility. There cannot be a more interesting study for a Briton;
for while we have extensive mines and collieries, and. while the
production
e
¥92 Preface to ff The Natural History
production of them can be obtained at a moderate expense, we
shall be considerable as a manufacturing and a commercial peo-
ple.
It is a particular loss to the increase of knowledge in the na-
tural history of the mineral kingdom, that this brauch of science
is neglected in our public schools. Mineralogy is taught in the
universities abroad. I believe, that what may be called fos-
silogy, or the arrangement and description of mineral fossils, is
taught in some of our public schools; but their instructions are
founded upon small detached samples, the collections of the ca-
binet, which leave the country gentleman and the young miner
as much 3 in the dark as before, with respect to the knowledge
of Nature and of real mineral appearances, which are the true
sources of useful knowledge in these matters; and this species
of knowledge is of great importance.
No country in the world depends so much upon the produc-
tions of the mineral kingdom, for the means of comfortable ac-
commodation, wealth, and power, as the island of Britain.
Coal is now become of such immense consequence to our cities
and populous counties, to our forges and other manufactures, that
it was impossible for us to have arrived at such commercial emi-
nence, and it is as much impossible for us to support our present
flourishing state of society without it; and we are equally in-
debted to the other parts of the mineral ‘kingdom for many of the
staple commodities, which are so widely diffused in the numerous
channels of our extensive commerce.
When we consider that many thousands, I may say millions, of
industrious hands are employed one way or other about the pro-
duce of the mineral kingdom in this island, we are convinced of
the importance of the increase of knowledge in mineralogy, and
of the advantage that would accrue to the nation from the insti-
tution of a class for teaching this science at our public schools.
It may be said, that the necessary aids for such an institution
are wanting in this island;—there has not yet appeared any
genuine natural history of the mineral kingdom, founded on such
sound principles of philosophy, as would enable a teacher to lay
the foundation of, and to complete a continued course of instrue-
tions in the science of mineralogy. There are not, that 1 know
of, many valuable books upon the subject in our language, eX-,
cepting such as treat of chemistry or metallurgy, and such as
arrange and describe fossil bodies, as they are found in the cabi-
nets of the curious,—almost all the rest is nothing but, wild
theory and system, built upon fanciful notions and opinions, the
fruits of the closet, which have no foundation in the truth of facts,
as they appear in ‘natural history; and therefore such books can
be
of the Mineral Kingdom.” 193
be of no use but to amuse, to multiply diversity of opinions, and
to increase ignorance of the real knowledge of nature.
It is this consideration which induces me to give to the public
a work the fruit of more than forty years experience and obser-
vation, to which great opportunities and a mind ardent in re-
searches of this nature prompted me. How I have executed my
plan, the public shall judge: but I flatter myself, from the great
number of facts I have ascertained, and from the many disco-
veries I have made, that my observations may be productive of
real use to mankind, by exciting the pursuit of, and giving a
proper direction to the study of this science, with more pleasure,
ease, and proficiency than hitherto.
The knowledge of truth in every branch of science is pleasant
and profitable ; and it is generally acknowledged, that natural
history is the most pleasant and profitable of all human studies
and researches ; and of all the parts of natural history, the mi-
neral kingdom is the most magnificent and august, provided
that we study nature herself.
There is a noble air of grandeur and magnificence in the sec-
tions of lofty piles of strata, in huge rugged rocks, and hanging
precipices, in profound caverns, and high and extensive cliffs of
the sea, not to be found in order objects around us.
These scenes astonish and captivate the mind at first sight ;
and the better we are acquainted with them, the more we are
enraptured with the view of the wonderful and endless variety
which we discover in these scenes of nature; and habitual ap-
plication to these researches assimilates the mind by degrees to
the greatness of the subject.
Discoveries of truth and attainments of knowledge in these
researches have the happiest effect on the human mind. In
pursuing these studies successfully, the mind is elevated, the an-
derstanding is enlarged and filled with great ideas, and all the
powers of the soul are exalted and pleased at being able to com-
prehend somewhat of these great works of God.
In short, I conclude that there areno human studies so amusing,
so entertaining, and delightful as these, when the student delights
in the sequestered scenes of nature. There is such a dignity
and variety in every part of this subject, that it is impossible for
a person of any genius and taste to be cloyed with these pur-
suits.
Who an possibly weary of endless change, and all either
astonishingly great, or fantastically grotesque, or beautifully re-
gular; and I know well, that the more we improve in the know~
ledge of these natural scenes, the more we delight in them; and
therefore, without being a prophet, I will venture to predict, that
whenever young gentlemen of genius and attention take pleasure
Vol. 50. No. 233. Sept. 1817. N in
4
194 Preface to The Natural History
in these researches, it may be then proclaimed, that the darkness
is past, and that the glorious light of science is rising upon the
mineral horizon.
Great and rapid progress will then be made in this branch of
natural knowledge, and the mineral kingdom will soon be un-
derstood as well as the animal and vegetable kingdoms. But’
the importance of these studies should be preferred to the plea-
sure of them in this mining, manufacturing, and commercial
country, where it may be supposed there are but few landed
estates that do not contain some mine or mineral fossil or other,
which may contribute to the public good, and to private emolu-
ment; and, therefore, I wish to excite a lively sense of the im~-
portance of increasing mineral knowledge.
In such a country as this, young gentlemen of Janded property
should be initiated in the principles of mineralogy, and such
youth as aim at professional abilities in mineral lines of business,
should have it im their power to lay an early foundation of know-
ledge in this branch of natural history, which is the best way to
arrive at eminence in the stations they are intended to All.
I have, in the following sheets, contributed a small moiety
towards the acquisition of knowledge in mineral science.
I have treated pretty fully of the natural history of the strata
of coal, and of such other strata as are found to accompany coal ;
I have treated fully and distinctly of the appearances, indica-
tions, and symptoms of coal; and I have been very careful to
distinguish the real and certain appearances from such as are
either false or doubtful.
In this part of my subject I have taken due pains to investi-
gate and explain every thing that I thought would throw light
upon, and communicate useful information, relating to a subject
ef so much importance to society; and I am persuaded that my
treatise upon coal will be of use to landed gentlemen, towards
facilitating the progress of youth in the knowledge of this branch
of natural history, and as an index for the young coal-master.
The second subject treated of in this work is the Natural His-
tory of Mineral Veins, and of ‘the other beds and repositories of
the precious and useful metals. I did not at first intend to publish
my treatise concerning metallic mines at this time, because it is
not completed; but when the first part of my work was put in
the press, I reflected that this second part contains a number of
particulars which may be useful to landed gentlemen ard young
miners ; and as it is very uncertain whether I shall proceed any
further in these mineral essays than the two volumes now pub-
lished, I thought it was better to offer this in its present imper-
fect state, than to suppress it altogether.
The history and description of mineral veins is perhaps m
u
.
of the Mineral Kingdom.” 195
full and explicit than can be found any where else. The pre-
cepts upon shoading and hushing are the result of much practice :
the observations and instructions concerning the appearances
aud symptoms of mines will give satisfaction, and he a sure guide
to all such as have occasion to consult them; and the local ex-
amples of the appearances of some yaluable mines may, in the
course of time, be of great use to society.
Such historical facts have always been considered as valuable.
communications. In short, all that is advanced in this imper-
fect fragment is the fruit of my own observation and experience 3,
and, therefore, it should be of some value, such productions being
generally useful to society.
These two essays upon coal and the metallic mines compose
the first volume.
In the second volume I proceed to take a view of the preyail-
ing strata of Great Britain, and of many interesting phenomena
of the superficies of our globe.
The philosophy or natural history of the superficies of the
globe is an interesting subject to all mankind in a social state.
Many of the necessaries, and most of the conveniencies of
life are found either upon or a little within the surface of the
globe, being the productions of the mineral kingdom; and we
are obliged to many of the strata for the plenty and excellence
of our food.
Lime is of great use to meliorate the soil, and to stimulate or
excite vegetation ; and the gradual weathering and decomposi-
tion of the superficies of many other strata, restore and increase
the soil, which may be in part exhausted-or carried away by
rains and currents; and if we look upon our houses, and within
them, we may soon perceive how much we are indebted to the
mineral kingdom.
The most remarkable phenomena which present themselves
to.us upon the surface, and as far as we.penetrate within the sur-
face of the globe, are remarked and explained in this third part
under several heads.
Ist. Ishave taken a view of the prevailing rocks and strata of
this island, to see which of them are stratified, and which of
them are not. Qn this head ] haye examined the appearance,
colours, quality, thickness, regularity, bearing, slope, and course
of the several classes of strata: J \haye collected a great number
of interesting facts and local examples ; and Ihave been at great
pains to select, and to examine particularly such strata as are
most useful to society.
2d. J have treated of the stratification of the superficies.of our
globe by the agency of water. In this disquisition the enlight-
ened and. candid naturalist will find a considerable number of
N 2 abstruse,
196 Preface to“ The Natural History
abstruse, but interesting phenomena above ground and below,
raised from obscurity, and treated of and explained upon rational
principles, in a clear, convincing, and satisfactory manner.
3d. I have examined part of the modern system of Count
Buffon and others upon this subject, to see how they correspond
with the real structure of the superficies of the globe, and other
phenomena of nature; and what I have advanced under this
head will bear the severest scrutiny by every test.
‘4th. I have treated of the natural history of mountains, and
of their glens and excavations, which is a sublime and difficult
subject. In this part the height and figure of the mountains,
the profundity, direction, and extent of their excavations, the
exterior and interior structure, with all the most remarkable
phenomena of mountains, and other irregularities of the surface
of the globe, are fully accounted for and explained to a demon-
stration, upon the principles of the agency of water, and of the
prodigious height and force of the diluvian tides ; and the clear
light which is thrown upon this great subject, will convince every
candid naturalist of the truth of my propositions.
5th. I have examined the nature, or quality, the size, figure,
and other phenomena of the larger grains and fragments which
are found in the composition of our rocks and strata; and these
inquiries naturally lead us into profound and interesting disqui-
sitions relating to the universal deluge,—to the present and the
antediluvian earth.
This profound and awful subject is naturally mysterious and
obscure, but it has been involved in infinitely greater obscurity
and confusion by the theories and systems of all ages, as the
subject never has been well understood ;—out of which obscurity
and confusion I have endeavoured to raise it, and to explain and
illustrate the doctrine of the deluge upon rational principles,
agreeable to the laws and phenomena of nature.
6th. I have made a few observations concerning several other
subjects relating to the mineral kingdom, among which there
will be found an interesting treatise of volcanoes.
I beg leave in this place to observe, that in all this work I
aim at being useful to society, especially within the limits of my
own country,—my native island ; but in the tract upon volcanoes
my genius and imagination soars above the height of the British
mountains, and takes a view of all mankind upon the whole face
of the globe, and especially where they now are, or may here-
after be plagued with the dreadful calamity of volcanoes; and
I hope to be the instrument of saving many lives from sudden
destruction,— to mitigate the miseries and abridge common
losses in voleanic countries ; and if my rules and instructions for
that purpose are thoroughly considered and followed,
I am
of the Mineral Kingdom.” 197
i am persuaded that what I have written will produce happy
effects. The tract upon volcanoes is founded upon experimental
science and real knowledge of natural history; and, therefore, [
hope, that in time, very happy consequences will result from my
essay upon this subject; in composing which, the whole powers
of my soul were animated and exerted in fervent desires of doing
good.
The dissertations concerning the balance of the waters of the
ocean, and the accumulated mountains of ice and frozen snow,
which mutually and reciprocally depend upon and illustrate one
another ; concerning the peopling of America by land from the
north-east of Asia, and its being stocked with land animals from
Armenia, in an early age, before the mountains of frozen snow
were greatly accumulated ;—concerning the pestilential effects
of humid vapours arising from the slime of new-formed lands,
from marshes and extensive woods in warm countries, and how
to mitigate these dismal calamities, and to banish these under-
mining enemies of the human race ;—concerning the deepening
and improving the beds and bars of the navigable and other rivers
of the world, and the draining and improving of marshes, new
formed, and wood-lands, with the great and glorious conse-
quences of such works, for the health, longevity, general happi-
ness, and prosperity of all nations; are humbly submitted to the
examination and censure of such candid and benevolent philoso-
phers as make advances in useful improvements, and the pro-
sperity and happiness of mankind the ultimate end of the exer-
tion of their talents.
In these dissertations they will find many valuable hints, which
they can improve, and a great deal of matter of vast importance
and consequence to the health and welfare of the world, very ill
put together, and in an uncouth dress, but which they may ar-
range, improve, and clothe in better language.
Since writing the above, and all I proposed to advance at pre-
sent in the following essays, I have perused a New Theory of the
Earth, by James Hutton, M.D. F.R.S. Edinburgh, concerning
which I beg leave to make a few remarks in this place.
Dr. Hutton is a naturalist of eminent abilities, whose know-
ledge in several branches of mineralogy does honour to his coun-
try, as some of his observations in the treatise under review
clearly evince. The’ propositions he states, with the conclusions
he draws from them, to confirm his hypothesis in the theory of
the earth, shall be the subject of the following observations.
The Doctor’s general system in his theory of the earth may
be comprised in these four propositions,
Ist. That all our rocks and strata have been formed by sub-
N 3 sidence
198 Preface to “* The Natural History
sidence under the waters of a former ocean, from the decay of and
waste of a former earth, carried down to the sea by land-floods.
2d. ‘That these submarine rocks and strata were heated to the
degree of fiision by subterranéous fire, while immersed under the
waters of the ovean, by which heat and fusion the lax and porous
Sedimeiit was consolidated, perfectly cemented, and all the pores
and cavities filled up by the melted matter, while the whole mass
Was in a state of fusion.
3d. That the rocks and strata, so formed and consolidated
under the waters of the ocean, were afterwards inflated and forced
up from under water by the expansive poiver of the subterraneous
fire, to the height of our habitable earth; atid of the loftiest
mountains upon the surface of the globe.
4th. That thése operations of nature, viz. the decay and waste
of the old land, the forming and consolidation of new land under
the waters of the ocean, arid the change of the strata now form-
ing under water to future diy Jand, is a progressive work of na-
ture, which always did, and always will gd on in a perpetual
succession, forming world after world.
I. The first of these propositions has been fully answered and
refuted before it was written, at least before it was published, in
my examination of the system of Count Buffon in his Theory
of the Earth, which will be found in the second volume of my
Essays upon thé Mineral Kingdoms, concerning which, I will
venture to say, and the candid intelligent naturalist will say with
me, that I have not left the Doctor so much as a particle of
earthy matter to form one of his future worlds, if a single parti-
cle would save the whole succession.
I have now effectually cut off all his supplies, and appropriated
them to a better use ; and I hope it will be acknowledged, that
I have made a good use of them. There is little or no differenee
between Count Buffon and Dr. Hutton in this part of their se-
veral theories; and therefore, what I have advanced concerning
Buffon’s, is equally applicable to the Doctor’s.
I have, in my examination of Count Buffon’s Theory, frankly
acknowledged the truth of almost all that the Count and the
Doctor advance about the weathering, décoinposition, aid waste
of the superficies of many of ovr rocks and strata, and of our
mountains and cavernous shores,
The spoils of the mountains aré carriéd down by land-floods
to the valleys and to the borders of the oceati. So far we go to-
gether ;—but here we must part, a8 I positively deny that any
Strata are formed under the waters of the ocean. I have, in
that part of my essays, rnadé it evident to a demonstration, that
the sea purges itsel. by the tides of all the earthy matter ee
own
of the Mineral Kingdom.” 199.
down by the floods, which earthy matter is thrown back upon
the shores, in the bays and creeks, and at the mouths of great
rivers, where, by degrees, it enlarges the bounds of the dry land
in exact proportion to the quantity carried down by the floods.
In that part of my essays, I have clearly demonstrated, that
the earthy matter washed off the face of our mountains and rocks
has no manner of tendency to the real waste and destruction of
the present earth; so far from it, that on the contrary, the ha-
bitable parts of the earth are gradually, but really and effectually
renovated, enlarged, and improved thereby. 1 have proved, that
many lakes, marshes, and frightful gulphs among the mountains
and in the plains, have been filled up in the course of the rivers
of the world, which are now rich, beautiful and habitable coun-
tries; that many millions of acres of new land have been made
in the valleys and plains, at the mouths of the rivers in the bays,
creeks, and shores of the ocean; and that very many and ex-
tensive portions of this new land are now the fat valleys by the
rivers, which are the scenes of population,wealth, and social hap-
piness.
It is upon this description of land that the highest number of
the great commercial cities of the world are seated ; such as, for
instance, London, Amsterdam, Alexandria, and many of the
cities of China, &c. which have long been the seats of learning
and the arts, of commerce, wealth, and glory.
Whoever will take the trouble to peruse my essays, will be
convinced and satisfied that the Deltas, Belgias, and Carses, and
other descriptions. of new land, formed and forming in all parts
of the world, fully and perfectly correspond with the quantity of
matter washed off the mountains and rocks; and they will there
see it clearly proved that all this is a real, a great, a substantial,
and a durable improvement of the present earth. ;
Man cannot live upon the summits, nor high up the sides of
lofty mountains ; but the frosts and thaws, aud other changes of
the air and weather, decompose part of the superficies of the
mountains, which is carried down by the floods to the valleys
and to the margin of the sea, where new land is gradually in-
creased, which enlarges the bounds of ‘the earth in convenient
situations for increased population, and for all the improvements
which are necessary for increasing human and social felicity ;—
and are not the spoils of the mountains much better disposed of
in this way, than if spread out at random through the bounds of
the ocean, to form imaginary worlds in the craniums of our mo-
dern philosophers ? ;
But this use which the wise and benevolent providence of God
makes of the sediment of-rivers in the ordinary course of things;
is not a well fancied hypothesis, proposed for the amusement or
N4 confusion
200 Geological Queries regarding
confusion of the inquisitive mind of man; but it is a real and
visible fact, which may be viewed, examined, and thoroughly in- _
vestigated by the man of leisure and abilities; and I am per-
suaded, that if Dr. Hutton will read my papers upon this sub-
ject, he will be convinced of the errors of his hypothesis.
Now, it being clearly demonstrated, that no strata are formed
in the bed, or under the waters of the ocean, all our author’s
investigations and reasoning upon that subject of course fall to
the ground ; and I have in my essays made it evident to a de-
monstration, that if, for argument’s sake, we allow the particles
of matter carried down by the rivers to be spread out over the
bounds of the ocean, and to subside in it, we should, in that
event, have no coal, no limestone, freestone, nor any other use-
ful fossil body.
We should have no such thing as strata, nor bed, nor division
of any kind whatsoever, but all would be one uniform solid
mass of sediment, compounded of all things. It is in vain to
say it would be otherwise. The known and acknowledged laws
of Nature forbid it ; and all the experience we have of sediment
proves the fact, that all would be a blended indistinguishable
mass, as I have fully shown in my essays, to which I refer for
clearing up the point under consideration. If we can suppose
any order or distinction in sediment, it must agree with the laws
of gravitation; of course the heaviest particles would subside,
and take possession of the lowest place, from which they would
not be dislodged by the lightest.
But we need not descend to particulars. Stratification must
be performed by a shallow spread and flow of water: but we
cannot allow of stratification, nor of any distinction of strata of
different qualities under the bed or waters of the ocean, without
a miracle for each ; and we need not have recourse to miracles,
when the phenomena of Nature can be as well and better ex-
plained upon rational and mechanical principles, agreeable to
the known laws and visible operations of Nature. But I will
not insist upon this topic here. I have already confuted this
part of the Buffonian theory, and the Huttonian differs but little
from it. [To be continued. ]
XXIX. Geological Queries regarding the Strata of the Vicinity
of Bridlington; and some Acknowledgements to NATHANIEL
Joun Wincu, Esq.,@8c. By A CoRRESPONDENT.
To Mr. Tulloch.
Sir, — I avenaiinns the causes of the ebbing and flowing of
the Spring of Water, which rises in Mr, Rennie’s Bore-hole in
Bridlington
the Strata of the Vicinity of Bridlington. 201
Bridlington Harbour, on the coast of Yorkshire, three occasional
Visitors of that place, Dr. John Storer, Mr. James Watt*, and
Mr.Gavin Inglis, have offered their several conjeciwres. Mr.Milne,
a resident, has done the same, and Mr. Hume has analysed its
waters,without the facts of the stratification, of that part of the
country, having sufficiently transpired, to enable myself and others
of your Readers, who have never had the opportunity of ex-
amining that part, to form any safe opinion. My object there-
fore is now, to request the favour of Mr. Winch, whom I have
understood to intend an examination this Summer of the northern
part of the Yorkshire Coast, and I hope of this part also, and any
other practical Investigators of the strata, that they would an-
swer the following queries, through the medium of your pages, viz.
Ist, Is the “‘ very solid Clay” through which the borer passed
28 feet (vol. xlv. p. 433) in reality a bed of alluvial Clay?;
as the bed of “ cretaceous flinty Gravel,” 15 feet thick,
through which the borer is said to have passed, next after
the Clay, may be supposed to indicate; owing to the fact,
indisputable among practical Men, that real Gravel, is not
found under any regular Strata: or, |
2d, Is the Clay above mentioned, an undisturbed stratum? ; and
the flints which are mentioned, as occurring in Gravel, in
reality, the fragments of nodules of Flint broken by the
boring chisel, which were dispersed in the Marl or soft
Chalk which was bored through, 15 feet, before a larger
nodule, or a continuous bed of flint, stopped the further pro-
gress of the boring, into the Chalk Rock beneath?: or,
instead of their being real Flints, which were bored up, were
they not chert nodules, broken perhaps by the auger? and
**the solid rock” which stopped the boring, concretion
of a bed of the Sand, into the stone, usually called Gray
Wethers?: or,
3d, Instead of the Clay which was bored through, being part of
the Plastic, Potters’, or Brick Clay, regularly covering the
upperChalk (sometimes without, but more commonly with,
a Sand intervening) as I have supposed in the last query:
may it not form a stratum, between the upper and lower
Chalk?: if it be correct, that -the same stratum of Clay,
stretches up the Woids, so as to confine down the water in
the Chalk around the Gipsies Springst. Because, if it be
‘
* In the Repertory of Arts, vol. xxx. p- 342.
t Which Spring I observe, Mr. Arrowsmith’s Map places, 2-Sds of a
Mile NW of the Wold Cottage (where the largest British Meteoric Stone
fell in 1795), and 14 Mile ESE of Foxholes village, on the Hull and Scar-
borough Road.
correct,
4th,
5th,
6th,
Geological Queries regardg
correct, as Mr. Smith’s Map of the Strata shows, and I
have always understood from other sources, the naked Chalk,
(aud not its cover of London Clay) extends from Foxholes,
5 to Great Driffield and beyond, SE to Thornholm, and
ESE almost or quite to Bridlington? &c.: the Clay
around this Gipsies Spriug, cannot be the plastic Clay above
the upper Chalk; unless in a local Trough (which Mr. Smith
has not shown) extending up the bottom of the vale from
Bridlington to Foxholes?: which seems improbable, 1}
think. i
What is the Rock spoken of by Mr. Milne (p. 434), as
forming the base of the Smithwick Sand Reef, 4 miles out
at Sea, SE from Bridlington, and presenting a Cliff under
water, towards the east? Is it the upper Chalk ?:—or, the
Gray Wethers?:—or any of the Limestones, &c. of the
Isle of Wight and Paris Series?. Concerning some of which
last, so much has been fabled of late years, regarding their
Jresh-water origin, in distinction from the Strata in ge-
neral, which have, without sufficient proof been assumed,
to have had a salt-water origin?
If “ The Gipsies,” spoken of in your last Number, p. 82,
be the Spring 103 m. WNW from Bridlington, which has
been mentioned in the 3d Query, situated almost on the
summit of the Wold Hills?: is it really true, that this Spring
elis and flows, periodically? or is it eredible, that this is
anyway connected with the Tide in Bridlington Bay ?—If
there are other Gipsie Springs, much nearer to the Sea, and
near to its level, to which allusion is made?; instead of that
one near Foxholes; where are they situated, by bearings
and distances, and the streams by which they descend to
the Sea?
In the case last supposed, and indeed with regard to all the
Gipsie Springs, which have so loosely been alluded to; is
the superficial Clay, through which the water is said to
“ ooze” and “* weep,” around them; in reality an al/uvial
covering, to water-worn, broken and heterogeneousGravel ? ;
or a stratum, covering another porous and water-charged
stratum beneath it ?: and in the latter case, which are these
strata, in the Smithian Series ?—and whether alluvia or a
stratum, is it clear, that the same extended and unbroken
mass of Clay, covers the vicinities of the Gipsies and of
Bridlington Bay Springs?
When the above queries are satisfactorily answered ; the truth
or otherwise, of the several ingenious hypotheses which have been
advanced, with the view of explaining the alleged wonders of
this
the Strata of the Vicinity of Bridlington. 208
this Spring*, can better be discussed: and until this is done, as
well as the facts of the Spring, stated on longer experience, I
shall hope to see your pages, sir, more usefully occupied, than in
prolonging so barren a discussion : at this day, localized facts,
not closet speculations, on Geological subjects, are wanted, by
great numbers of your Readers, as well as by
Your humble servant,
September 1, 1817. A Constant READER.
P.S.—I do not feel less obliged to your able and valuable
Correspondent Mr. Winch, for the important facts of his last
Letter, in p. 122, than if the same had more directly been stated,
as corrections of the opinions he formerly gave, when answering
itty Queries, (in p. 465 of your xlvith volume, p. 101 of vol. xlvii.)
as also in the Geo. Trans. iv. pp. 73, 74, 75, and 76, corre-
sponding then, nearly, with those of Dr. Thomson, as to the
supposed unconformableness, of the masses of Basalt, scattered
over the northern parts of Northumberland, Whether “ the Basalt
alternate with the rocks of which the whole district is composed,”
or not? is an important question of fact, to which my 2nd ques~
tion, in p. 12 of your xlviith vol. directly went: and for the
answer now obtained, I beg most sincerely to thank Mr.Winch:
—the idle questions, as to whether newest ficetz Trap, or any
-others of the Geognostie fancies, will apply to the Strata of
Northumberland, I will readily leave to Dr. Thomson and others
to decide.
With regard to the last paragraph of Mr. W’s Letter, I beg
leave to remark, that what he truly states, as to other sub-
stances, when seen in contact with Basalt (both of Dykes and
Strata) sometimes appearing different in quatity, from the ge-
neral masses of those adjacent substances: is true also, in nu-
merous instances, which I have seen, with regard to the contacts
of several other substances filling Dykes, or forming immediate
alternations of strata, without the intervention of the Wayboards
or partings, which more commonly are interposed: and, that
instead of considering, in such situations, the Slate Clay as turned
into flinty slate, &c. the Coal as being charred, the Sandstone,
as changed, to a brick red, and the Limestone as rendered highly
erystalline, &c. by changes wrought on these masses, subsequent
to their original forination, by heat, communicated to them from
the Basalt when in amelted or Lava state :—on the contrary, I
have seen, such abundant reasons for considering all these alleged
changes, and mpny others, as blendings, or infiltrations of the °
component substances of the adjacent masses, coeval with the
Fed Brighton, in Sussex, had in like manner its wonderful Wells, until
7602, when their mysteries were cleared up; see Nicholson’s Journal,
BVO, iii. 65,
formation
204 On the Rotary and Orbicular
formation of one of them:—or, as the consequence of a subse-
quent chemical decomposition of one of the surfaces in contact :
—that I cannot doubt, if it could so occur, that Mr. W. or any
others of similar ways of thinking on this point, could conduct
me to the very strongest case in Great Britain, of their alleged
charring or changing of adjacent substances, by the heat of Ba-
salt: I could point out facts on the spot, which would completely
overturn such a supposition ;—with hand Specimens, theoretically
selected, or with descriptions by others, so tinctured, the result
might possibly be otherwise. This test, our theoretic inferences
must bear, in every instance, if they are worth anything, or
worthy of being communicated to others, or remembered.
I have already and fully explained myself, in p. 253 of your
last volume and elsewhere, as to the locally variable thicknesses,
of continuous strata of Basalt, forming what may be considered
as somewhat irregular lenticular masses, either plano- or double
convex; surely Mr. W. will on reconsideration agree with me
in thinking, that “ wedge-shaped masses,” but inaptly desig-
nates them. I hope that none of your succeeding Numbers, for
some time, will appear without communications from Mr. Winch,
Mr. Forster, Mr. Fryer, or some other industrious Observers of
the Geological facts, of the northern English Counties, disposed
to freely communicate what they know.
2d P. S.—I heartily wish that Mr. Winch, or his Friend to
whom he alludes in your last, would send up to Mr. Sowerby
(No. 2, Mead-place, Lambeth) ample Specimens of all the kinds
of Shells, found in the Limestone of Wratcliff, or in any other
Quarries, with their precise localities marked; in order that in
future Numbers of his ‘* Mineral Conchology,” they may be
drawn, described, named and compared, with other distant lo-
calities of the same species of Shells. A. Cols
XXX. On the Rotary and Orlicular Motions of the Earth. By
‘ Mr.H. Russet.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — I WILL esteem it a favour if you will give a place to the
following letter, in your publication,—and am, &c.
Norwich, July 24, 1817. Henry RussEL.
no .
“ To Sir Richard Phillips.
« S1rk,—To account for the attraction of gravitation, has long
been an object of my most serious inquiry, and | am sorry I can-
not find in your paper (of last June) that gratification which by
the
Motions of the Earth. — 205
the title I was led to expect. I cannot conceive what could in-
duce you to suppose, that the orbicular and rotary motions of
the earth, are the cause of that great principal attraction, of
which you justly observe, the Newtonians and all the modern
schuols of philosophy have acknowledged themselves ignorant.
‘| think it is very easy to show, that these motions, which are
themselves only effects, cannot be the cause of what in every
point of view appears to be a first principle. If you were to
attempt an illustration of your theory by actual experiment, I
am persuaded you would discover its fallacy.
A circular plane surface, ten or twelve inches in diameter,
lying in the plane of our horizon, with grooves cut in its upper
surface on lines drawn from the centre to the circumference,
might have a rotary motion given to it, and if globules of mer-
cury were put into the grooves, the centrifugal force would by
them be exhibited, and you would find that no orbicular or any
other motion, that you could communicate, would be able to
bring all the globules of mercury at the same time to or towards
the centre, which, if your doctrine was true, would undoubtedly
be effected by giving it a circular motion, similar to the motion
of our earth in its orbit.
I should very much like that you would try this, or some other
experiment, by way of illustration, before you apply your “ prin-
ciples to the phenomena of a system of bodies moving within
the gaseous medium of universal space.”
\ 5 ke
\
~
>
—
Let the circle OR represent the orbit of our earth; S the
sun in the centre; E the earth; PE, a line drawn from the
centre of the earth through the point of projection; TG a tan-
gent of the earth; AD a diagonal of the rectangle DPA, the
longer sides of which are to the shorter, as the orbicular motion
18
206 Experiments on Vegetation.
is to the rotary, or as eighty to.one. Let us suppose the axis of
the earth perpendicular to the plane of the earth’s orbit, that
the earth is turning from A to G, and that it moves in the orbit
in the direction EQ. , A stone projected from the piont A, will
continue tu rise till its vas mertie is overcome hy the attraction
of gravitation, by which it will be drawn to the point from whence
it was projected. The orbicular and rotary motions of the earth,
have no power, whatever, to cause a body thus projected, to re-
turn again to the earth; but on the contrary, were it possible
that the earth could perform its revolutions, retary and orbicular,
without the existing principle attraction the stone spoken of,
without the addition of any muscular or explosive force, would
not remain on the earth, but would fly off in the direction A D,
in obedience to the indisputable laws of motion. An attentive
examination of the annexed diagram, will familiarly show that it
is impossible for a projectile thus neglected by its guardian at-
traction, ever again to return,
I am willing to admit, that the orbicular and rotary motions
of the earth combined, on account of the inclination of the earth’s
axis, preduce some peculiar effects net yet justly noticed ; but I
am more inclined to suppose that they are the cause of the pre-
eession of the equinoxes, or of the nutation of the earth’s axis,
than of that great and still unfathomable principle which cannot
but excite the wonder and admiration of unassuming philoso-
phers.
But admitting (which I have not the least inclination to do)
that your theory holds good at the equator, how will you account
for the attraction of gravitation at or near the poles? How will
you account for the horizontal attraction of the sun and moon?
will you be able to account for our tides, neap and spring? If
you can give satisfactory answers to these questions, you will no
doubt very much stagger the present ideas of,
Sir, yours, &c.
Norwich, July 24, 1817. Henny RussEx.
XXXI. On Mr. Tatum’s Experiments on Vegetation. By
A CorRESPONDENT.
To Mr. Tilloch.
‘Sir, — In the advanced state of chemical science, the accumu-
lation of experiments proceeds with so much rapidity, that it is
possible a man of the most extensive reading may claim as.a dis-
covery an observation which ,\had been made by another. But
when a correspondent pretends to enlighten one of the most
controverted subjects of exporimental science jby views and ex-
periments
~*~
Experiments on Vegetation. 207
periments which have been detailed in half a dozen professed
. treatises, and otherwise promulgated in every possible way, he
surely betrays a most unpardonable ignorance, The corre-
spondent to whom I allude is Mr. Tatum, who has favoured
you with a paper in a late Number, wherein he alludes to the
old story of the purification of the atmosphere by vegetable re-
spiration, of which, he says, few or none doubt the correctness.
Mr. Tatum however could net rest satisfied with the general
adoption of this opinion, and in the true spirit of philosophic
research he determined to try the matter himself. Accordingly
his experiments teach him that seeds, when confined under a jar,
evolve during germination only carbonic acid; and he moreover
discovers that plants in common with animals consume the oxy-
gen of the air, which is accounted for in the formation of car-
bonic acid. ‘These facts no doubt would be very interesting dis
coveries, had they not been discoveries of twenty years pausing,
I have said that Mr. Tatum’s observations have Leen anticipated
by half a dozen authors, and I think I shall be able to make good
the assertion. The opinion that plants purify the air originated,
as is well known, with Dr. Priestley; but even he seems afterwards
to have been aware of the inaccuracy of his conclusions ;—“ for,”
says he, in vol. iii. p.273, “in general, the experiments of this year
were unfavourable to my for mer hypothesis,—for whether I made
the experiments with air injured by respiration, the burning of
candles or any other phlogistic process, it did not grow better,
but worse ; and the longer the plants continued in air the more
phlogisticated it was. 1 also tried a great variety of plants with
no better success.” The first author that eaperimentally con-
tradicted this opinion was Scheele ; and to avoid prolonging this
letter, I shall content myself with referring to his work on Fire
and Air, p.160. After Scheele came Ingenhousz and Sennebier,
one of whom wrote three volumes of experiments on this sub-
ject; the other, five. That Mr. Tatum may lose no time in
looking over the ill-digested works of these authors, I refer him
to Ingenhousz’s book, vol. i. p. 255 ; and again, vol. ii. p. 758,
and to vol. iii. p. 114, of Sennebier’s publication, Physiolog.
Veget. at which references he will find an explicit declaration
of what I have said. At present we have still living M. Saus-
sure junior, who has written a most interesting, ingenious, and
luminous work on the Chemical Functions of Vegetables, and
his experiments entirely corroborate what had been done by
Scheele, Jugenhousz and Sennebier. Vide Annales de Chimie,
tom. xxiy. p. 139, and his work entitled Expérience sur la
Vegétation. Before the appearance of Saussure’s work the at-
tention of the public was called to this question by the first
volume of Mr, Ellis’s treatise on the Respiration of Plants and
Animals,
_ 208 Remarks on
Animals, in which he faithfully notices all that had been done by
his predecessors, and establishes the point by abundant research,
that the whole of animated nature, whether vegetable or animal,
abstracts the oxygen of the air, which is entirely bestowed in the
production of carbonic acid. In Mr. Ellis’s second volume (a
most elaborate and interesting performance, and the latest work
on the subject,) Mr. Tatum will find the question resumed ; and
that while Mr. Ellis maintains that carbonic acid is the result of
the natural respiration of plants, he proves that there isa second
function, by which, during bright sunshine, the carbonic acid so
formed is reconverted into oxygen. This process, he contends,
is entirely a chemical one, depending on the chemical agency of
light, and by no means to be considered as a necessary or na~
tural operation. Thus far and much other interesting matter,
with regard to the difference of colour in different plants and at
different times of the year, Mr. Ellis has ably established. The
question still remaining is, not whether plants have the power of
counteracting the vitiation produced by the breathing of animals;
but whether they are ableduring sunshine to reconvert into oxygen
the carbonic acid they form during darkness and common day-
light. The solution of this question I have attempted, and I
hope one day to give a satisfactory answer to it. The sixth
author who has touched on this question is Sir H. Davy, in his
Agricultural Chemistry, who details two experiments which he
made in order to convince himself that Mr. Ellis had not been
deceived by his extensive researches.
Independently of these works Mr. Tatum will find an analysis
and critique of Mr. Ellis’s opinion in the Quarterly Review; and
the subject is also fully discussed in Murray’s and Thomson’s
Systems of Chemistry. JT conclude by saying, that all Mr. T’s
experiments have been executed before, and some of them a
dozen times over,
I am, sir, Yours respectfully,
W.H. G.
XXXII. Remarks on Sir R. Purirps’s Defence of his Hypo-
thests. By Mr. Tuomas TrEpDGoLp.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Si, — As Sir R. Phillips has favoured some of my remarks on
his hypothesis with a reply, I will endeavour once more to con-
vince him of the fallacy of the opinions he has put forth.
Sir Richard appeals to experience, without once bringing for-
ward an experiment to prove the correctness of his views ; and
to the laws of Newton and of Nature, without once showing that
they
)
Sir R. Phillips's Defence of his Hypothesis. 209
they agree with his hypothesis: hence, it is difficult to refute
such undefined opinions. Undoubtedly Sir R. thinks that he
has corrected the mistake, and therefore rendered the demon-
stration in the Phil. Mag. for July, p. 436, correct ; in this,
however, he is mistaken. The demonstration is mtended to
prove that bodies are deflected towards the earth by a power
which decreases inversely as the square of the distance. Now
it is evident, that a projectile or mass of matter can be acted
upon by that part of the spheric surface only which it occupies 5
also, that it cannot occupy similar portions of spheric surfaces ;
—but it is similar portions only that are to one another as the
squares of their radii: therefore, the conclusion is equally as in-
correct as it was before. And, as a proof that circular motion
has not any effect to impel a body towards the centre of motion ;
place an open vessel of water upon the internal part of the rim
of a wheel, and turn the wheel with considerable velocity; when
the water will acquire such.a degree of centrifugal force as will
retain it in the vessel, in all positions of the wheel. Again, if a
ball or other body were made fast upon the external part of the
rim of the wheel, and it were put in motionwith a considerable
velocity; then could the power that confines the ball to the
wheel be suddenly removed, the ball would fly off in a tangent
to the rim of the wheel. ’
As either of these experiments might be tried*without much
difficulty, I would recommend them to Sir R’s notice; though it
be now too late to save him from exposing his ignorance of the
laws of motion, (see his answers to the second and third objee-
tions,) it may prevent a repetition of a like exposure.
Sir Richard has certainly adopted a very singular mode of
defending himself; for he assumes the most questionable part
of his hypothesis, to be an established truth, (viz. the deflective
power of the rotary motion,) and then proceeds to reply to the
minor objections, by telling us, over and over again, that the
deflective power of the rotary motion is equivalent to gravita-
tion.—OF course, if that were the case, it would produce the
same effects. But Sir R. has not anywhere shown that it ts
equivalent—nay, not even that it has the least tendency to de-
flect a projectile towards the earth. |
If Sir R. would take the trouble to define the sense in which,
he uses the word motion, it would then be a little more clear
how far it is better known than gravitation. According to the
common definition of the term, motion is only an effect; of
which it is the object of the philosopher to inquire the cause.
Newton and others have shown gravitation to be one of the
camses of the rotary and orbicular motions of the planets, of the
flux and reflux of the ocean, the descent of projectiles, and,
Vol. 50. No. 233, Sept. 1817. O various
210 On Terrestrial Gravilation:
various other phenomena. Sir R. Phillips attempts to show
that one of these effects is the cause of the other ; and calls this
advancing human knowledge a step further—I suppose he means
bagkwards; therefore I will leave him to pursue the course he
has chosen.
I am, sir, yours, &c.
Tuomas TREDGOLD.
XXXIII. On Sir Ricuarp Puitips’s supposed Discovery of
the Cause of the Phenomena of Terrestrial Gravitation.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — To appreciate the success with which Sir Richard Phil=
lips has defended his discovery of the cause of the phcenomena
of terrestrial gravitation, it might, perhaps, be sufficient to re-
mark, that he has left untouched Mr. Tredgold’s fundamental
objection ; viz. that as neither the resistance of the atmosphere,
nor the motions of the earth on its axis, or in its orbit, have se-
parately any tendency to deflect towards its surface, bodies pro-
jected upwards, it follows that their conjoint action can have no’
such tendency. Permit me, however, by way of commentary, to
add, that it has long since been demonstrated, that whether a
body be projected by a single impulse, or by many simultaneous
impulses in different directions, the progressive motion commu-
nicated must be reetilinear. The combination, therefore, of the
two-fold motion of the earth with any other impulse, can, in
projecting a body, impress on it no other than rectilinear pro-
gressive motion; nor can these forces, after the instant of their
joint impulse, in any way modify the direction then impressed.
There remaius, therefore, of Sir Richard Phillips’s forces only the
agency of the atmosphere to deflect the projectile from a right
line into such a curve as must return to the earth. Now the
effect of atmospheric resistance would be that of simple retarda-
tion, did uot the rapidity of the rotary motion of the parts of
the atmosphere augment with their altitude. A consequence
of this circumstance is, indeed, a continual deflection of the pro-
jectile from its initial direction: but whatever deflective force
may be assigned to this cause, it could never make a body de-
scribe a curve returning to, or even approaching the earth’s sur-
face; for the very obviotts reason that the direction of its action
must always be parallel to tangents of that surface.
This being so, the theory of Sir Richard Phillips does not
precisely correspond with his description of it as “a theory
which substitutes the known motions of Nature as operative
causes of certain physical phenomena in place of an assumed
principle
The Description of a Safety Fuinace. 211
principle called gravitation, by which, false analogies have been
introduced into philosophy.” Let us, however, in a single in-
stance observe how these “ known motions of Nature” supply
the place of the “ asswmed principle called gravitation,” _
The weight of bodies, and their velocity in falling, uniform
experience shows to be least at the equator, and to increase
with the latitude. Now as the rotary motion of the earth’s sur-
face and atmosphere diminishes from the equator to the poles,
where it ceases in both; the weight of bodies and their velocity
in falling, ought, according to Sir Richard’s doctrine, to be
greatest al the equator, and to diminish as the latitude increases.
Nay further, since there exists neither rotary motion on the earth’s
surface at the poles, nor in the atmosphere in its prolonged axis,
a direct consequence of his doctrine is, that Lodies at the poles
are devoid of all weight, and when projected perpendicularly
thence, they never return to the earth!
I am, sir,
Your very obedient servant,
Bath, Sept. 9, 1817. Fics
XXXIV. The Description of a Safety Furnace for preventing
_ Explosions in Coal-Mines. By Ropert BakEwELL, Esq.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Dear Sir,— [ue attention of coal proprietors has lately been
directed to the explosions which take place in mines from the
lights used by the workmen; but it is well known that similar
explosions are often occasioned by the inflammation of the car-
buretted hydrogen gas, as it passes the fire placed near the upcast
shaft to rarefy the air and promote ventilation. The fire which
is generally necessary, is thus not unfrequently the cause of the
most fatal accidents,
To prevent this, no remedy has been proposed that I am ac-
quainted with, except the substitution of a charcoal fire, on the
principle that the gas will not explode by a red heat burning
without fame. An open charcoal fire is, however, liable to the
following objections. The carbonic acid gas generated by the
combustion of charcoal being specifically heavier than the air of
the mine, will, as it is cooled in its passage upwards, descend
again and choak the lower part of the shaft. A particle of com-
mon coal intermixed with the charcoal, or falling into the fire,
might produce flame and cause an explosion. The comparative
dearness of charcoal will also tend to prevent its introduction.
Coke from coal is more easily procured, but it sometimes beams
02
with
212 The Description of a Safety Furnace.
with a lambent flame sufficient to ignite explosive mixtures of
gas.
A fire which will burn with perfect safety in mines, and at the
same time occasion a brisk circulation of air, has been hitherto
a desideratum. I am induced to believe, that I have discovered
how this may be obtained by the introduction of a furnace, sim-
ple in construction, in which coke or even common coal may be
burnt, without any danger, and the circulation of air in the mine
greatly increased.
The furnace or stove admits of considerable variation in size
and form, according to the situations in which it may be used;
and as it can be erected at a small expense, I trust no prejudice can
exist to prevent a fair trial ofits utility. The accompanying draw-
ing will explain its construction, and enable any coal proprietor to
apply the furnace to his own use. AAaa (Plate III. fig. 1,) re-
present the body of the stove and chimney, which should be of cast
iron in one piece without any side-door or opening whatever, as
it is supplied with fuel at the mouth or chimney, J/ represent
the grate, which moves upon an hinge, and opens downwards by
removing an iron peg c, in order to clear the grate when wanted,
and dd a broad rim below the grate perforated by the air-holes
eee. F is a cistern of stone or brick to be filled with water
above the lower edge of the rim dd. The diameter of the fur-
nace at the grate may be 30 inches, that of the chimney about
18 inches, to admit the fuel. The height of the chimney, if
coke be used, need scarcely exceed ten feet, and may be inclined
or not at option, according to the situation. When the furnace
is lighted, which may be done by introducing lighted coke down
the chimney, there will be no access of air but through the aper-
tures eee, which may be regulated at pleasure, by stops to in-
crease or diminish the current. The use of the water-trough is
to confine the admission of air to the openings ee, and also to
prevent any accidental inflammation of coal or other substance
below the grate.
Sheuld the air, of the mine be charged with inflammable gas
to the explosive point, it is prevented from passing near the sur-
faee of the fire by the sides of the stove; and should even the
lowest stratum of air which enters the apertures ee be explosive,
which can rarely occur, this air will lose a part of its oxygen
by passing through the red-hot coke, and by its further admix-
ture with carbonic acid gas confined in the stove, must cease to
be inflammable. ‘The general current of inflammable air will
pass with perfect safety over the mouth of the chimney, and will
ascend the shaft from the heat communicated to it by the sur-
face of the stove. If common coal be used, a chimney of greater
length
oe
Remarks on Oljections to Experiments on Vegetation. 213
length must be joined to aa, reaching beyond the possible ex-
tension of the flame. To prevent inflammation at the lower part
of the fire, there must be only one aperture below the grate, into
which an air-pipe must be closely fitted. This must extend
above the top of the pit, and be of sufficient width to admit a
free passage for the air downwards to the fire. By this means
the remotest possibility of danger would be avoided either from
a coke or a coal fire ; the rarefaction of the air would be depen-
dent on the heated surface of the stove.
I have ascertained by experiment, that a small current of pure
hydrogen gas will inflame at the distance of nearly two inches
above the apex of a newly-snuffed candle, but will not inflame
when passed over the chimney of a lamp where paper would be
scorched without ignition. We may by this means have a metre
of the length of chimney necessary to prevent the inflammation
of gas, according as the materials burned may evolve more or
less flame.
Where the apertures ee are used without the air-pipe, they
may be covered with double wire-gauze, which might prevent
any inflammation under the grate communicating with the air of
the mine. With these precautions one or more fires might be con-_
stantly burning near the upcast shaft, and by increasing the
quantity of heated surface, we may accelerate the ascent of air
more rapidly than by an open fire as at present used,
So long as the fire continues to burn, the air in the mine will
never pass down the chimney or reach the fire from above; and
were the hydrogen to inflame when the air is admitted through
the apertures ee; if they are clothed with wire-gauze, the flame
will be confined to the under part of the grate, and may be in-
stantly extinguished by closing the apertures.
The simplicity of this safety furnace will, J trust, recommend it
to the early notice of coal proprietors; and should it be found to
lessen the dangers to which the workmen in mines are exposed,
my object in this communication to your valuable publication wil]
be fully answered.
I am, dear sir, yours, &c.
13, Tavistock Street, Bedford Square, Rogt. BAKEWELL.
Sept. 5, 1817.
XXXV. Remarks on Mr. Murray’s Objections to Experiments
on Vegetation detailed in the Phil. Mag. for July last. By
Mr. J. Tatum.
To Mr, Tilloch.
Sir, — Your correspondent Mr. Murray has, in your last
Number, objected not only to the manner in which I conducted
03 the
214 Remarks on Objections to Experiments on Vegetation.
the experiments relative to the effects of vegetation, &c. on at-
mospherical air, communicated to your Magazine of July; but
also to those of Mr. Ellis, which he says ‘¢ are as liable to objec-
tions as any other.” -
He disapproves of the “ mercurial effluvia,” without proving
that such existed in the experiment, at least so as to retard the
functions of the plant, for there was but about two or three inches
surface of mercury exposed to the air of the plant (but as [ be-
lieve Mr. Ellis did not use mercury in his experiments, he is not
liable to this objection). To the “ confined instead of a free
atmosphere” he also objects; and then concludes by stating, that
he holds unchanged ‘ the opinion he has long maintained as to
the direct experiments of Drs. Priestley and Ingenhousz, since
corroborated, namely, that the quantity of carbonic acid evolved
by plants will bear but a pitz?ful proportion to the floods of oxy-
gen poured out upon the atmosphere by the exercise of the ve-
getable function.”
Now, I would ask the objector what were the direct experi-
ments of Drs. Ingenhousz and Priestley, and by whom and how’
since confirmed, which have so confirmed or established him in. his
opinion?» Was it the experiment of Dr. Ingenhousz, as related
at page 14 of his work? where he says: “ they (the detached
leaves) are to be put in a very transparent glass vessel, or jar,
filled with fresh pump water, (which seems best adapted to pro-
mote this operation of the leaves, or at least not to obstruct it,)
which being inverted in a tub full of the same water are to be
exposed to the sunshine: thus the leaves continuing to live,
continue also to perform the office they performed out of the
water.”
Is this experiment of the unnatural situation of detache leaves
less objectionable than the one in which an entire plant, or spring
while attached to its parent, is placed in atmospherical air? Should
Mr. Murray think so, I shall still, whenever J wish to ascer-
tain the effects of a plant (not an aquatic one) on the atmosphere,
always place it in atmospherical air, and not in water; and shall
always prefer using an entire plant, or that part of one attached
to its parent, rather than de/ached leaves.
As for the “ floods of oxygen’’ which he says are ‘* poured out.
upon the atmosphere by vegetation, being so superior to the
pitiful quantity of carbonic acid; this remains to be proved; for
I do not recollect one experiment cither of Drs. Ingenhousz,
Priestley or others, which is adequate to it, And although he
is such a strenuous advocate of Dr. Priestley, he must. acknow-
ledge that the Doctor’s experiments frequently proved the con-
trary; for at p. 336 of his third volume, the Doctor states “¢ that
the air in which a willow plant was growing, continued to de.
crease
Remarks on Objections to Experiments on Vegetation, 215
crease in purity for twenty days.” And at p. 273, vol. iii. the
Doctor says: ‘‘ the experiments of this year 1778, to which I had
been induced to pay more particular attention and care,’ were
unfavouratle to my former hypothesis.” 1 could adduce more
experiments of the Doctor’s, of this nature, but think these will
suffice.
By whom and by what experiments the doctrine he maintains
has been “ since ‘confirmed,” I know not, unless the experi-
ments of Sir Humphry Davy are alluded to. its
But as Mr. Murray objects to my experiments being con-
ducted in a confined portion of air, I must remind him that Drs.
Ingenhousz, Priestley, and Sir H. Davy’s were all performed
either under water or in a confined portion of air. But perhaps
he can approve of that in Drs. Priestley, Ingenhousz, and Sir
H. Davy, which his confirmed opinion will not allow him to do
with respect to Mr. Tatum. If his object be the support of truth,
I hope he will not suffer himself to be influenced by partiality, or
names. { have, it is true, presumed to differ from the above highly °
respectable characters ; but I have yet to learn, by what means
any of these experimenters ascertained the results of vegetation on
air without its being “ confined ;”” and I hope Mr. Murray will ’
have the goodness to inform me, by what peculiar plan he has
discovered that vegetables pour out such floods of oxygen, an¢
he may rest assured I will lose no time in adopting it; and |
will find me far from being backward to give him all the praise
Mr. Murray asks, “ If the carbonic gas was at all equiva’
to the oxygen se¢ free, whence comes the carbon which beS
up the plant ?” . l
I cannot think this question can possibly apply to any!!™8
related in my paper ; for I there contended that oxygen 19.”
set free, as such I cannot comprehend the object of the ¢S00-
He proceeds to say: ‘ the winter no longer contributir the ar
necessary to life in Europe, the salutary gas is brough!0 us by
the trade winds from the southern regions.” a
Really,sir, Mr. M. has drunk deep of Dr. Priestley’?tinciples 5
for the Doctor entertained unnecessary apprehensieS Of @ de-
ficiency of oxygen for respiration, and sought for apply, which
he said he ‘* found in vegetation.”” So Mr. M, Jually appre-
hensive that the floods poured forth in Europe would not be
equal to the consumption, imports it from the guthern aioe
But lkaving heard much talk of the superiorityof the oxygen 0
the atmosphere at some parts, over that of othis, I was induced
to ascertain whether such was the case; butas yet I have not
been able to discover it, and I find I am’ nof solitary in my re-
sults; for Sir H. Davy could not distinguisi any difference be-
tween the air brought from Guinea and that of Bristol; and ait
O04
216 Answer to Geological Queries of ** A Constant Reader.”
the gentleman has ascertained by direct experiment that such @
redundancy of salubrious air exists in the southern regions, I am
at a loss to know. I hope he will have the goodness to point
out the plan by which he ascertained such an important phe+
nomenon; which will confer a favour on,
Sir, yours, &e.
Dorset Street, Salisbury Square, J. Tatum.
Sept. 9, 1617.
P. S.—Any hints from your correspondent Mr. J. Acton will
confer a favour, as perhaps I shall pursue the sybject next spring,
XXXVI. Answer to Geological Queries of ‘* A Constant
Reader.” By Mr. WestcGarts ForTER.
To Mr. Tilloch,
SIR, — I HAVE observed in your Number for July last, some
geological queries, by your correspondent, with the signature of
** A Constant Reader,”’ requesting an early answer thereto.
I therefore take the opportunity of informing him, with re-
spect to his 2d question, (“¢ whether or not the great whin sill,
or stratum of basalt, shown in p. 152 of my Treatise ona Sec-
tion of the Strata, &c. has not such a continuous edge on the
surface, as clearly indicates it to form, like each of the other
rincipal strata, a vast extended plane having curved parts within
‘e earth, &c.”’) That wherever I have made observations, or
ced the great whin-sill, it is as conformable as any other stra=
be although very variable in thickness, having its under lieing
me lieing strata. And it may be traced upwards of fifteen
mil commencing a little below the smelting-house at Tyne-
heatvhere it is thrown up to the SW. about sixteen fathoms,
Y “influence of a great dyke or vein, commonly called the
aCk-me, or Great Sulphur Vein. As we proceed, a little
above ts smelting-house, it disappears, about the distance of
two mile. haying its over lieing stratum upon it; viz. Tyne-
b ottom lirnstone, &c. until we arrive at the river Tees; where
it again Mies its appearance, the Tees running upon it almost
all the way . the high waterfall at Caldron Snout, where it as-
sumes locally ¢/,¢ appearance of detached and over lieing masses
of basalt; wh.h, as Mr. Winch observes, may very probably
resemble those ¢ the King’s Park Edinburgh. It may be also
necessary to stat, there is a level drove in the limestone, under
the great-whin-sil, not far from Caldron Snout, and near the
conflux of the tive Tees, and Maize-Beck ; and this Beck, or
rivulet, which divims the counties of Westmoreland and York-
shire, near Birdale, nns all the way for the distance of a mile or
: more,
Description of an Apparatus for consuming Fire-damp. 2\7
more, W. of the conflux, upon or even, in the whin, where it
again disappears, by the over-lieing of Tyne-Lottom limestone,
which limestone may be traced to the W. up the same Beck, ta
High Cup Nick, where the stratum becomes abrupt, as we de-
scend to Dufton, and the whin, basseting underneath, and only
about eight fathoms thick. It may also be observed at Great
Rundle Beck, where the principal level commences, and is drove
upon it, to the mines at Dufton-fell.
I may further add, that the same great whinstone-bed occurs
on the river Wear, near the town of Stanhope, in the county of
Durham; but not so thick as at Caldron Snout.
I shall endeavour to answer the other queries in my next com-
munication.
Iam, sir,
Your most obedient servant,
Ganigill, August 26, 1817. WEsrGARTH ForsTER.
XXXVII. Description of an Apparatus for consuming Fire-
damp in the Mines without Danger of an Explosion:—
Apparatus for re-lighting the Miners’ Davy. By Mr,
J. Murray.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — Tus sketches which accompany this, represent an ap-
paratus by which the fire-damp may be consumed on the spot,
in the mine, without fear of explosion; and an appendage to
light the safe-lamp when extinguished. _ It is presumed that the
descriptive account will be found sufficiently explanatory, and
intelligible. If it should be objected to (fig. 1), that its size is
too great,—it may be observed, that in the Air collieries safe-
lamps on the principle of the wire-gauze have been used by Mr.
Taylor three times the size of those constructed by Sir H. Davy.
I did not find the plan I originally proposed to relight the .
lamp by any means unequivocal, when tried in the mine. This
circumstance led to the present invention,
I am, sir, ;
Your most humble servant,
Douglas, Isle of Man, Sep. 3, 1817. J. Murray.
P.S.—The great increase of intensity which I discovered by
exposing the Galvanic plates for a few minutes to the action of
the atmosphere, prior to reimmersion into the cells, I have since
repeated very often with the same uniform results. I shall be
glad to see these in your next Number.
De-
218 Appatatus for re-lighting the Miners’ Davy.
Description of the Figures.
Fig. 2 (Plate III.) shows a cast-iron urn resting in a vessel of
lime-water, or cream of lime, to absorb the carbonic acid gas
formed. It is topped with two folds of wire-gauze at A. At
BBB are three or more sockets, the orifices of which are covered
with wire-gauze. In these sockets are fixed tubes of tin C,
which move up and down to any height like the sliding pipes of
a perspective or opera glass ; they terminate in a funnel-shaped
orifice, or they may be jointed, to incline at any angle to receive
the explosive medium for combustion. The ‘** Davy” will be
the index of the requisite height; the tubes should be raised
within half an inch of the base of the fire-damp, floating on the
roof, so that a due admixture of inflammable air and its sup-
porter may enter the funnel of the tube, together.
Fig. 3 exhibits a view of the internal insulated wire-gauze,
being that which imprisons the wick of flame ; it does not touch
the surrounding cast-iron case or urn, nor even the upper wire~
gauze, on its top. This cage may be made two or three folds.
The lamp is fed by an oil cistern exterior to the urn,.and a fold
or two of wire-gauze in the communicating pipe will prevent any
retrogression of flame where the cistern is to be supplied with
oil. The wick may be of asbestos, which will never need re-
newal; and the lamp, first lighted, is screwed tight into the
socket.
Fig. 4 represents the oil cistern of Davy’s safe-lamp with two
separate wicks. A exhibits one of these wicks surrounded by a
platinum cage. B the reserve wick, with an appendage which
serves at once toelevate the cap and depress the spiral platinum
wire to ignite the wick ;' a the cap attached to the axis f by the
wire l. c¢ a spring, that when at freedom reacts on the wire
attached to the cap, which then fails and protects the wick, when
not required; d is a spiral platinum wire attached by e to the
axis f, which moves by a button exterior to the wire-gauze,
The reserve wick is tipped with sz/phur. When the wick of the
lamp A is extinguished by reason of excess of fire-damp, the
singular combustion of the platinum wire begins, and continues
until there exists no longer any of the hydrocarbonate. The
platinum wire before extinct becomes dull red; this will indicate
an approach to the free atmusphere the moment after, by a se-
mirotatory movement of the button, the cap is raised, and the
top of the platinum brought in contact with the wick tipped with
sulphur, which ignites it. i '
XXXVIII. On
[ 219 ]
~ XXXVIIT. On the new Theory of the System of the Universe.
By Sir Ricnarp Pues.
Tue theory which ascribes the subordinate motions on the earth
to its superior motions as a planet, is opposed by many persons,
who, assuming that the motions of the planets in a system are
nevertheless governed by gravitation, ascribe incongruity to a
new doctrine which excludes that principle from the internal or
local phenomena of a planet.
The author of that theory is, however, for good and alae!
tial reasons, of a totally different opinion. He believes in the
perfect harmony of nature—in the exact analogy of causes and
effects—and, wherever he sees motion, he ascribes it to other
motion ascending i in a series ad infinitum, or to AN UNKNOWN
causE. He therefore gives no credit whatever to the existence
of any universal principle of causation, such as that called by
the name of gravitation, but refers all phenomena to motion,
primarily and proximately.
He was not anxious at present to press this extension of his
theory on the world, because it is less easy to demonstrate that
distant planets move one another by impulse, than it is to show
that loose bodies in a ship, or on the earth, are governed in their
subordinate phenomena by the paramount motions of the ship
or earth. Every one capable of understanding its terms must
feel as an axiom, ¢hat the orbicular and rotary motions of the
earth necessarily give weight to lodies, and laws to their fall,
because the moving earth and the bodies are in contact, and par-
taking of those common motions; but certain postulata must
be granted before it can be proved to beings whose experience
is confined to the subordinate phenomena of the earth, that dis-
united planets and masses can operate on each other mecham-
cally, and communicate motion to one another.
The postulata required to be admitted are as under :—
1. That all space is filled with some gaseous medium.
In the age of Kepler and Newton, the discoveries of Priestley
had not proved the existence of various gases. An incompressible
fluid, so light as hydrogen, was not then known to exist.. The
similar phenomena of the planets ; the combustion of meteors
at great heights; the transmission of solar and planetary light,
and the reflection of the solar light after it has been refracted
through the atmosphere of a comet, prove, however, that some
rare medium actually fills space; even if its existence were not
sufficiently proved by the mechanical phenomena of the planets.
2. The medium of space is acted upon in straight lines by
moving bodies placed within it.
It is difficult for men who are accustomed to see the connexion
of
220 On the'new Theory
of rods or levers of fixed continuous matter between bodies act-
ing on one another, to conceive that any gas, like hydrogen, can
act by like agency. But this power of gas will be evident on
slight consideration ; for, if a tube, or series of tubes, of ten feet —
or a million of feet in length, were filled with hydrogen gas, and
a plug were driven into one end, so as to require any known
power less than the strength of the tubes to force it out; then,
if a piston were forced with that degree of power into the other
end, it is notorious that the rarest gas would expel the plug as
effectually as though it were propelled by a continuous rod of
iron. If space, therefore, be full of any light gas, or fluid suz
generis, it is evident that such gas, in such a plenum, must act
in continuity in filled space, as well as ina filled tube. We
know that the gas in which we live acts thus at definite distances,
in proportion to the closeness of the place of experiment; and
we must not forget, that in the only situation in which a good
experiment could be made, the effect of this continuous power
in mere gas was very remarkable: viz. when Blanchard and
Jeffreys crossed the Straits of Dover, they threw from their car,
when at the elevation of two miles, an empty bottle, the fall of
which on the water produced a sharp concussion in the car,
thereby affording proof of the continued impulse of gas, even
when the impulse is made in free space. The ascent of
sound, and its propagation through distances of three or four
hundred miles near the earth, is a further proof of such capabi-
lity, though the vibrations of sound are not exactly of the same
nature as the propulsion of impulse.
Coro.tary.—This important consequence follows, that, as
impulses in a gaseous medium must act in cones diverging from
the moving power, so the force of the impulse must necessarily
diminish as the squares of the distance ; the impulse from a focus
through gas being of the nature of the impulse of light, heat,
and all emanations,
These are the postulata on which I propose to raise a new
theory of the universe, without the aid of gravitation.—And on
these bases it cannot be difficult so to combine the laws of mo-
tion as to account for all the ordinary phenomena of the uni-
verse.
In such considerations, the governing principle is an exact
fitness and harmony between causes and effect ; and these im-_
pose the necessity of a balance of powers. 4 lalance of powers
requires, however, equal momenta; and equal momenta grow
out of equal quantities of motion, on two siles of a fulcrum,
centre, or axis.
In Universal Nature there is no up nor down; there is no na-
tural disposition of bodies to fall together, or to recede from onte
another ;
of the System of the Universe. 221
another; and no phenomenon is produced but by analogous
causes exactly equal to the effect. Thus motion necessarily pro-
duces motion, and the existence of motion affords proof of the
existence of a cause in some superior motion. Disturbance is
always counteracted by the inertia of matter, and the mutual
contest between the moving agent and the moved patient, causes
both to turn round the centres of their masses, or round a ful-
crum, on each side of which the quantities of motion are forced
to seek equality.
In the solar system, the sun is the moving power of all the
planets. Whatever be the origin of its own motions, the suN
acts, in the ceconomy of the planetary bodies of the solar system,
like the HEART in the ceconomy of the animal system. Its own
motion may be created by some arrangement within itself—by
& perpetual motion of divine contrivance—by the cross and re-
ciprocal actions of the planets—or, according to an hypothesis
of Herschel, it may have a superior orbit among systems of suns;
and our planets and their satellites may be its secondaries and
sub-secondaries! It will, however, satisfy the spirit of philoso-
phy, if we can trace all those motions, which have hitherto baf-
fled inquiry, to the natural action of a primum mobile like the
sun; and we may be content there to terminate our inquiries, at
ieast for some ages. Thus much seems certain, that the motions
of the solar system may be correctly likened to that of a penta-
graph or polygraph—the planets mimicking the motions of the
central mass, just as the tracing points mimick those of the ori-
ginal in the action of that machine; or perhaps the motion of
_ the sun may be compared to that of the hand, while whirling a
string with a weight at the end—the hand moving through a
circle of one or two inches, giving thereby an orbit of several
yards to the weight at the end of the string. In universal space,
however, and in performing absolute motion, the planets move
in no relations like that of the weight to local and relative powers ;
and therefore have no inclination to fly off in a tangent *!
* In tracing the effects from their causes, let us suppose the
solar system to be stationary: let the sun, whose mass is a given
number of times greater than either of the planets, be moved one
foot—then will each of the planets be moved in the same direc-
tion, according to a ratio governed by the positions and bulks.
of the whole, a certain number of feet, as 100,000, or 1,000,000
feet, according to circumstances.
Such a circular motion of a preponderating central mass, act-
* The dispositions to fly off in a tangent, and fall to the sun, given to
the planets by the Newtonian philosophy, are gratuitous assumptions,
which ore almost blushes to name, and are unsupported by any analogy,
and unwarranted by the universal simplicity of the machinery of nature.
ing
pL On the new Theory
ing on and through the medium of space upon the planetary
bodies, or upon any aggregations of matter, would propel them
into correspouding motions, with forces varying reciprocally as
the squares of the distances, and directly as the quantities
of matter to be moved. Hence the orbicular’ motions of the
planets*.
If the result of this action were a balance of momenta in the
moving bodies, as directly exerted and dissipated in the medium of
space, then the or bicular motion would terminate the phenomena3.
but, if the continuous mass of the planetary body were unequally
acted upon, owing to its sides being of different density, then
the equal action of the prime mover would drive the lighter
hemisphere round the heavier (as the Pacific Ocean round the
old Continent); and a rotary motion would necessarily be ge-
nerated, whose axis would equalize the quantities of matter on
each of its sides.
- Of course such an action, constantly exerted on various bodies
distributed through space, would cause them to vary their re-
spective motions, according to their positions in relation to each
ather; because the force on each would be as their mutual po-
sitions in regard to the sun.— Hence the mutual disturbances of
the uniform motions of the planets.
The motion thus created in every mass would, from a like cause,
occasion each to act on the other, in proportion to its bulk and
quantity of matter. The earth and moon would be acted upon
by the sun; but the earth would also act upon the moon, more
than the moon upon the earth, in the proportion of their matter.
The common action of the sun on both would occasion them of
necessity to endeavour to turn on the centre of the quantity of
motion generated by each.— Hence the revolution of small masses
round large ones.
But, as the secondary planets would be governed chiefly and
proximately by their primaries, and these would possess a power
of varying the centre of motion by the motion of their fluids,
which would, from that cause, rise in the parts presented to the
secondary; so the secondary would not turn on the centre of its
own mass, but its disposition to do so would be destroyed by the
varying or accommodating energies of the primary.— Hence the
peculiar motions of a secondary planet, and the necessary con~
nexion of those motions with the tides of the primary.
Of course also, as the axis of each mass, or of the joint masses
of primaries and secondaries, would be constantly turning round
the physical axis or centre balancing their quantity of motion,
* Tf the velocities were as the forces exerted, and the momenta were as
the matter compounded of the square of the velocities, then the quantities
of motion at each end of the line of action would in theory be equal. d
an
of the System of the Universe. 223
and as the moving power in the sun would be constantly im-
pelling that moving axis—the centre of density of the single or
conjoined masses would describe the orbit round the sun, and its
variations would tend to vary the curve of the orbit,
The diameter of the orbit, or the radius vector, would there-
fore be slightly and regularly varied by any arrangement within
the planet which enlarged the distance between the centre of
motion and the centre of matter, as a preponderance of water
in one hemisphere, either from construction or the melting of
congealed masses*, Whatever varies the rotation of the axis of
motion (that is, of the mass,) round the axis ef the real matter
in a planet, would necessarily vary its rotary impulse, increase
or diminish its centrifugal force, and give a variation to the
length of the radius vector; and hence the elliptical form of
the erbits of the planets.
The masses of each planet would be kept together, and acci-
dental disturbances in the arrangement of the parts would be
restored by the subjection of each part to the paramount motions
of the whole, as proved in my previous essay.
. The medium of space, whatever it may be, would thus be an
acting cause of motion, like a current of the sea, and not a means
of resistance, as has been mistakenly supposed.
_ There would be no occult principle of attraction or gravitation
concerned in any part of the phenomena; but the whole would
be a necessary result of the known laws of motion, at once sub-
ordinate, analogical, harmonious, and fit. ‘The phenomena of
the universe are the results of a system of motion producing mo-
tion; and of motion generated by motion. By this agency a
stone is propelled to a planet by the motions of the planet—-a
planet is carried round the sun by the motions of the sun—a se-
condary is carried round a primary by the joint motions of the
sun and primary—and the motions of the sun are, perhaps,
caused by the motions of systems of suns—while the motions of
those systems may again be caused by other superior motions!
In short, all nature consists of a series of included motions pro-
duced by the motions of superior bodies and systems, till we
ascend to the first term in the series—an inscrutable cAUSE of
CAUSEs ! ;
_'The general mathematical laws would be the same as those here-
tofore determined, though the results would be produced by dif-
ferent trains of reasoning. The data would however be more
'* Tt seems to be a necessary fact, that the cause which varies the direc-
tion of motion, or the equal orbit of a planet, should exist withia
the planet itself, and grow out of accidents arising from its general mo-
oun,
precise
224 Nolices respecting New Books.
precisé and analogical, and the deductions, therefore, be moré
satisfactory.
Tinfer, generally, that Morion is the primary and proximate
cause of all phenomena; that iv operates in a descending series
from the rotation of the sun round the fulcrum of the solar sy-
stem, to the fall of an apple tothe earth; that, as transferred
through all nature from its source, MOTION serves as the effi-
cient cause of every species of vitality, of every organic arrange-
ment, and of all those accidents of body heretofore ascribed to
gravitation; and, I venture further to suggest, as a theological
deduction, quite as probable as the doctrine of the Newtonians,
which ascribes their gravitating or projectile force to the imme-
diate agency of the Deity, that MoTION, as a great secondary
cause, may be regarded, in its uniform operation from the great
to the small, as the hand of omNIPOTENCE; while, as a princi-
ple of causation, it necessarily involves the attribute of omNi-
PRESENCE.
-However heretical this theory may appear to partisans of “ the
gravitating principle,” to believers in “ gravitating particles,”
to devotees of “ harmonic numbers,” to geometricians who con-
sider the laws‘ of curves as laws in physics, or to philosophers who -
conceive that body may act without material intervention where
itis not, I consign it to the guardianship of the press, in full
confidence that it will surmount opposition, and endure as long)
as the system which it describes.
R. PHILiirs.
XXXIX. Notices respecting New Books.
An Experimental Inquiry into the Laws of the Vital Functions ;
with some Observations on the Nature and Treatment of In-
ternal Diseases. By A. P. Witson Paiip, M.D. FLRS.E.
8vo. 360 pages.
iz our Number for May, we announced that this work was in
the press. It has now made its appearance. It is divided into
two parts. In Part I. the author treats of the state of our know-
ledge respecting the principle on which the action of the heart
and blood-vessels depends, and the relation which subsists be-
tween them and the nervous system; giving a translation of the
Report of the Committee of the National Institute of France, on-
the experiments of M. le Gallois, which he considers as accurate,
welll arranged, and sufficiently comprehensive for this purpose.
In other respects, however, he considers this Report.as not’ de-.
serying the same praise, as ‘‘ it overlooks defects both in M.
Gallois’
See ee ee ee ee
Se
A, oe
Notices respecting New Books. 225
Gallois’ experiments and reasonings, of such moment, as wholly
to invalidate all his most important conclusions; and to leave
him the discoverer of certain unconnected though most valuable
facts, instead of the author of a new system, founded, as the Re-
port alieges, on a basis never to be shaken. In Part II. the au-
thor relates his own experiments, and points out the inferences
to which they seem to lead—respecting the principle on which
the action of the heart and vessels of circulation depends; the
relation which subsists between these and the nervous system 5
the principle on which the action of the muscles of voluntary
motion depends, and the relation which they bear to the nervous
system; the principle on which the action of the vessels of se-
cretion depends, and the relation which they bear to the nervous
system; the nature of the nervous influence; the principle on
which the action of the alimentary canal depends, and the rela-
tion which it bears to the nervous system; digestion, and the
effects produced on the stomach and lungs by destroying certain
portions of the spinal marrow, compared with those by dividing
one or both of the eighth pair of nerves.
The author then proceeds to “ the temperature of the animals
in those experiments in which portions of the spinal marrow
were destroyed,” or, generally, “ the cause of animal tempera-
ture.” Alluding to Mr. Brodie’s Croonian lecture for 1810, in
which he gave an account of experiments which led to the in-
ference, that the produetion of animal temperature is under the
influence of the nervous system; to the same gentleman’s ex-
periments in the Philosophical Transactions of 1812, tending to
strengthen this inference ; and tv his own, which tend to prove
that the caloric which supports animal temperature, is evolved
by the same means, namely, the action of the nervous influence
on the blood, by which the formation of the secreted fluids is
effected, and consequently that it is to be regarded as a secre-
tion —he observes that “ if this view of the subject be correct,
and galvanism be capable of performing the functions of the
nervous influence, it ought to occasion an evolution of caloric, as
it effects the formation of secreted fluids, from arterial blood,
after the nervous influence is withdrawn.” To asgertain this
point, certain experiments were made on animals, which he de-
tails at length, and which, he suggests, ** afford by their result'a
strong argument in favour of the identity of the nervous in='
Jluence and galvanism.”’ Ve next considers the use of the gan-,
glions ; the relation which the different functions of the animal
body bear to each other, and the order in which they cease in
dying; reviews the inferences from his experiments and observa-
tions ; and concludes with the application of these to explain:
the nature and improve the treatment of diseases.
Vol. 50. No. 233, Sept. 1817. P The
226 Nolices respecting New Books.
The work before us deserves much attention from medical.
men. Asa specimen of the author’s style, and the way in’ which
he applies the result of his inquiries to useful purposes, we select
the following from the concluding part of his work: He says:
‘* T cannot help regarding it as almost ascertained, that in those
diseases in which the derangement is in the nervous power alone,
where the sensorial functions are entire, and the vessels healthy,
and merely the power of secretion, which seems immediately to
depend on the nervous system, is in fault, galvanism will often
prove a valuable means of relief.”’
*° Of Asthma and Dyspepsia.
** The following observations relate chiefly to affections of the
lungs. Of the effects of galvanism in dyspepsia, the principal
experience which I have yet had, has been in cases where it was
complicated with asthmatic breathing.
<¢ When the effect of depriving the lungs of a considerable
part of their nervous influence is carefully attended to, it will be
found, I think, in all respects similar to a common disease, which
may be called habitual asthma; in which the breathing is con-
stantly oppressed, better and worse at different times, but never
free, and often continues to get worse in defiance of every means
we can employ, till the patient is permanently unfitted for all
the active duties of life. The animal, in the above experiment,
is not affected with the croaking noise and violent agitation
which generally characterize fits of spasmodic asthma. This
state we cannot induce artificially, except by means which lessen
the aperture of the glottis.
“ We have seen from repeated trials, that both the ‘oppressed
breathing and the collection of phlegm, caused by the division
of the eighth pair of nerves, may be prevented by sending a
stream of galvanism through the lungs*. That this may be
done with safety in the human body we know from numberless
instances, in which galvanism has been applied to it in every
possible way.
** Such are the circumstances which led me to expect relief
from galyanism in habitual asthma. It is because that expecta-
tion has not been disappointed, that I trouble the reader with
the following account of its effects. Although the effects of gal-
yanism in habitual asthma have been witnessed by many other
medical men, I have mentioned nothing in the following pages
which did not come under my own observation.
‘* 1 have employed galvanism in many cases of habitual asthma,
and almost uniformly with relief. The time, during which the
Zalvanism was applied before the patient said that his breathing
* Exp. 46, 47, 48, 49.
was
————————
Notices respecting New Books. 227
Was easy, has varied from five minutes to a quarter of an hour,
I speak of its application in as great a degree as the patient
could bear without complaint. For this effect | generally found
from eight to sixteen four-inch plates of zinc and copper, the
fluid employed being one part of muriatic acid,” and twenty of
water, sufficient, Some require more than sixteen plates, and
a few vannot bear so many as eight; for the sensibility of dif-
ferent individuals to galvanism is very different. It 1s curious
and not easily accounted for, that a considerable power, that
perhaps of twenty-five or thirty plates, is often necessary on first
applying the galvanism, in order to excite any sensation ; yet
after the sensation is once excited, the patient shall not perhaps,
particularly at first, be able to bear more than six or eight plates.
The stronger the sensation excited, the more speedy in general
is the relief. I have known tlie breathing instantly relieved by a
very strong power. I have generally made it a rule to begin with a
very weak one, increasing it gradually at the patient’s request,
by moving one of the wires fait one division of the trough to
another, and moving it back again when he complained of the
sensation being too strong. It is convenient for this purpose to
charge with the fluid about thirty plates.
“<The galvanism was applied in the following manner. Two
thin plates of metal about two or three inches in diameter, dipped
in Water, were applied, one to the nape of the neck, the other
to the pit of the stomach, or rather lower.. The wires from the
different ends of the trough* were brought into contact with
these plates, and, as observed above, as great a galvanic power
maintained, as the patient could bear without complaint. In
this way the galvanic influence was sent through the lungs, as
much as possible, in the direction of their nerves. It is proper,
constantly to move the wires upon the metal plates, particularly
the negative wire, otherwise the cuticle is injured in the places
on which they rest. The relief seemed much the same, whether
the positive wire was applied to thenape of the neck, or the pit of
the stomach. ‘The negative wire generally excites the strongest
sensation, Some patients thought, that the relief was most
speedy, when it was applied near the pit of the stomach.
‘* The galvanism was discontinued as soon as the patient said
that his breathing was easy. In the first cases in which I used
it, [ sometimes prolonged its application for a quarter of an hour,
or twenty minutes, after the patient said he was perfectly relieved,
in the hope of preventing the early recurrence of the dyspnoea 5
but I did not find that it had this effect. It is remarkable, that in
several who had laboured under asthmatic breathing for from ten
* I found a trough of the old construction answer better than the im-
proved pile, which is so much superior for most purposes,
P2 to
228 Notices respecting New Books.
to twenty years, it gave relief quite as readily as in more recent
cases ; which proves, that the habitual difficulty of breathing,
even in the most protracted cases, is not to be ascribed to any
permanent change having taken place in the lungs.
« With regard to that form of asthma which returns in violent
paroxysms, with intervals of perfectly free breathing, I should
expect little advantage from galvanism in it, because, as I have
jest observed, | found that the peculiar difficulty of breathing,
which occurs in this species of asthma, cannot be induced i
animals, except by means lessening the aperture of the glottis.
It is probable, that in the human subject the cause producing
this effect is spasm, from which indeed the disease takes its name,
and we have no reason to believe, from what we know of the
nature of galvanism, that it will be found the means of yelaxing
spasm,”
[To be continued. |
Mr. Accum, author of several well-known works on Chemistry
and Mineralogy, has just published a new work entitled ‘* Che-
mical Amusement,’ ”’ comprising a series of curious and instruc-,
tive experiments on chemistry, which are easily performed and
unattended with danger. The work has been written, the au-
thor states, ‘‘ with a view to blend chemical science with, rational
amusement. ‘To the student they may serve as a set of popular
instructions for performing a variety of curious and useful ex-
periments well calculated for illustrating the most striking
facts which the science of chemistry has to offer. To give effect
to this object, the author has selected such experiments only as
may be performed with ease and safety in the closet, and the ex-
hibition of which requires neither costly apparatus nor compli-
cated instruments. And that the experiments may be of greater
value than merely to afford amusement for a,leisure hour, he has
added the explanation to each individual process, in order to en-
able the operator to contemplate the phenomena with advantage
as particular objects of study, if his inclination should lead him
that way.”
The first number of a new periodical work, entitled ** Journal
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, * has just
reached this country from America. It contains, Ist, Descrip-
tions of six new species of the genus Firola, from the Mediter-
ranean, by MM. de Sueur and Peron, with a plate. 2d, Anac-
cout of the new mountain sheep, Ovis montana, by Mr, George
Ord; with a wood engraving of the horn of the animal. 3d, A
description of seven i
‘Thomas Say.
Another
merican water and land shells, by Mr.
Notices respecting New Books. 229
Wiother Part (11. Vol. XI.) has appeared of The Edinburgh
Encyclopedia, conducted by Dr. Brewster.
The principal articles are, Hybernation, Hydrodynamics, Hy-
grometry, Jamaica, Japan, Java, Ice, Iceland, Ichthyology, Idria,
Jedburgh, Jersey, Jerusalem, Jesuits, and Jews. .
In the article Hydrodynamies, the various subjects of Hydro-
staties, Specific Gravities, Hydrometers, Equilibrium of Floating
Bodies, Capillary Attraction and Cohesion, Hydrostatic Instru-
ments, Hydraulics, Motion of Water in Tubes, Pipes, and Ca-
nals, Resistance of Fluids, and Hydraulic Machinery, are treated
ina plain and popular manner, so as to be easily understood by
those who have but a slight acquaintance with Mathematics.—
Among the parts of this article which have never before appeared
in our language, are an account of Laplace’s Theory of Capillary
Attraction; of Gay-Lussac’s Instrument for measuring the Ascent
of Water in Capillary Tubes; Venturi’s Experiments on Floating
Cylinders of Camphor; Girard’s Experiments on the Effect of
Heat upon the Motion of Fluids; and Prony’s Researches on the
Motion of Water in Pipesand Canals. ‘The Experiments of Mr.
Smeaton, on the Motion of Water in Pipes, are here printed, for
the first time, from the MSS. of that celebrated Engineer, and
the Description of some new Hydrometers, of Burns’s Overshot
Wheel without an Axles of Burns’s Sluice Governor; and of the
Screw Engine, erected at the Hurle:t Alum-works, have never
before been published. New Tables for facilitating the applica-
tion of Dubaut’s Formule have also been computed for this article,
by Mr. Lawrie of Glasgow. he article Hygrometry contains an
account of the recent investigations of Gay-Lussae and Biot, and
of many important discoveries made by Mr. Anderson of Perth,
the author of the article, who has reduced into the form of a
science a subject hitherto obscure and little understood.
The article Ice contains an account of the Observations of
Mr. Scoresby on the Polar Ice; and the article Iceland is written
by an eminent traveller, who lately yisited that interesting
island.
The Second Part of Lackington and Co’s Catalogue, con-
taining the Classes, curious aud rare Books, old Plays, Astro-
logy, Poetry, aud the Arts, Philosophy, Natural History, Games
and Sports, &c. &c. is now published. The Third Part, con-
taining Greek and Latin Classies and Books in all foreign Lan-
guages, will be published in October; and the Fourth and last
Part at Christmas, which will contain a very large Collection of
Divinity, and an Appendix of additions to all the Classes.
Part the First, of English and Foreign History, Voyages, Tra-
yels, and Miscellaneous, is recently published,
P3 XL. In-
{ 230° j
XL. Intelligence and Miscelianeous Articles. m
CURIOUS COMPOUND OF PLATINUM.
Ma. Davy, Professor of Chemistry in the Cork Institution,
whilst pursuing some investigations on platinum, formed a pecu-
liar compound of this metal which has some remarkable proper-—
ties. When it comes in contact with the vapour of alcohol at the
common temperature of the air, there is an immediate chemical
action, the platinum is reduced to the metallic state, and the heat
produced is sufficient to ignite the metal and to continue it in a
state of ignition. It would at present be premature to offer any
conjectures on the uses to which this new compound may be ap-
plied; but from the peculiar properties both of the metal and the
compound, there is reason to believe it will admit of some im-
portant applications, Mr. Davy has already employed it as a
simple aud easy means of affording heat and light. To produce
heat, nothing more is, necessary than to moisten any porous ani-
mal, vegetable, or mineral substance, as sponge, cotton, asbestos,
iron filings, sand, &c. with aleohol or whiskey, and let a bit of
the compound fall on the substance so moistened; it instantiy be-
comes red hot, and continues to remain so whilst any spirit re~
mains; nor is it extinguished by exposure to the atmosphere, or
by blowing the breath on it; on the contrary, partial currents of
air only make the ignited metal glow brighter. The heat pro-
duced in this way may be accumulated to a considerable extent
by increasing the quantity of the materials employed. On these
facts, Mr. Davy has constructed a sort of tinder box that answers
very well to procure immediate light. The box contains two
small phials, and some sulphur matches tipped at the points with
avery minute bit of phosphorus; one of the phials contains the eom-
pound; the other a little aleoho). The phials may either have glass
stopples or corks. The stopper of the phial containing the alcohol
has a small aperture at the bottom, in which there is inserted a bit
of sponge; this is kept moistened but not quite wet with aleohol.
When a light is wanted, it is only necessary to take out the stop-
per and put a bit of the compound no bigger than the head of a
pin on the moistened sponge; it instantly becomes red hot, and
will immediately light one of the matches.
This mode of igniting a metal and keeping it in a constant state
of ignition, is quite a novel fact in the history of Chemistry, and
affords a happy illustration of the facts pointed out by Sir Hum-
phry Davy in his late able and scientific researches, which have
thrown so much light on the philosophy of flame, led to such
brilliant and highly important results, and will probably admit us
to amore intimate acquaintance with Nature in her refined and
elaborate operations,
CHLORINE.
ee
we ee
two
<.
—_
Chlorine.—Steam Engines.—Safety-lamp.
CHLORINE. .
Dr. Ure of Glasgow has lately finished a very elaborate series
of experiments on the controversial subject of chlorine. Their
principal object was to ascertain whether water, or its elements,
existed in and could be extracted from muriate of ammonia. He
has perfectly succeeded in obtaining water from the dry and re-
eently sublimed salt, by methods quite unexceptionable. The
vapour of such muriate of ammonia being transmitted through
laminz of pure silver, copper and iron, ignited in glass tubes,
water and hydrogen were copiously evolved, while the pure metals
were converted into metallic muriates. This fact is decisive, in
the Doctor’s opinion, of the great chemical controversy relative to
chlorine and muriatic acid, and seems clearly to establish the for-
mer theory of Berthollet and Lavoisier, in opposition to that
more lately advanced by Sir H. Davy with such apparent cogency
of argument as to have led almost all the chemists of Europe to
embrace his opinion. The details of the experiments have been
communicated some time since to a distinguished member of the
Royal Society, and will be speedily laid before the public. This
decomposition of the salt by the metals, at an elevated tempera-
ture, is analogous to the decomposition of potash in ignited gui-
barrels, by Gay-Lussac and Thenard.
STEAM ENGINES IN CORNWALL,
It appears from Messrs. Lean’s Report, that during the month
of August 29 engines performed the following work with each
bushel of coals.
Water lifted 1 foot high) Load per square
, with each bushel. inch in cylinder.
21 common engines averaged 22,301,735 various,
Woolf’s at Wheal Vor .e 37,031,002 15°5 lib.
Ditto Wh. Abraham .. 51,067,670 16°8
Ditto CILEO. xs -. 20,841,894 4-2
Ditto Wh. Unity .. 29,417,746 1321
Dalcouth engine .. Mai 8 AD 9 bs) jo ip
Wheal Abraham ditto <s. 4 208.022 10°3
United Mines ditto.. oe, ME. at hd 18:1
Wheal Chance ditto -- 34,489,691 10°7
SAFETY LAMP,
Sir Humphry Davy has made a further discovery in regard to
combustion, which will prove a very great improvement to his
safety lamp. He thus describes it in a letter to the Rev. J. Hodg-
son of Heworth:—
“| have succeeded in producing a light perfectly safe and
ceconomical, which is most brilliant in atmospheres in which the
P4 flame
232 Trigonometrical Survey.—Eruption of Vesuvius.
g y ip
flame of the safety-lamp is extinguished, and which burns in every
mixture of carburetted hydrogen gas that is respirable. It con-
sists of a slender metallic tissue of platinum, which is hung in the
top of the interior of the common lamp of wire gauze, or in that
of the twilled lamp. It costs from 6d. to 1s., and is imperish-
able. This tissue, when the common lamp is introduced into an
explosive atmosphere, becomes red hot, and continues to burn
the gas in contact with it as long as the air is respirable; when
the atmosphere again becomes explosive, the flame is relighted.
I can now burn any inflammable vapour either with or without
flame at pleasure, and make the wire consume it cither with red
or white heat. I was led to this result by discovering slow com-
bustions without flame, and at last I found a metal which made
these harmless combustions visible.”
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
Dr. Olinthus Gregory and Colonel Mudge, who it will be re-
collected formed a part of the scientific association which lately
proceeded to the Zetland Isles, have just returned. Captain Col-
by and M. Biot remain in Zetland a few weeks longer ; the for-
mer for the purpose of terminating his observations with Rams-
den’s zenith sector, and then of connecting the chief points in
the triangulation; the latter, in order to witness the phenomena
of the Aurore Boreales in these high latitudes. Dr. Gregory
having ascertained what is technically devominated ‘ the rate”
of Pennington’s astronomical clock at Balta, in north latitude
60. 45, proposes staying a short time at Aberdeen, for the pur-
pose of ascertaining the rate of the same clock there, by means of
astronomical observations with the excellent instruments in the
Observatory at Marischal College.
ERUPTION OF VESUVIUS.
A letter from Naples, dated July 20, says—‘‘ The present
eruptions of Vesuvius are astonishing. Copper, iron, alkaline
acid, sulphur, sulphuric acid, chalk, and ammonia, form salts that
are sometimes in a mass and sometiines divided. It is observed
that copper is very much mixed with volcanic matter; quantities
of it are found among the different kinds of lava. Vesuvius, which
since the year 1813 has been more or less in a state of commo-
tion, has entirely covered its former crater with a thick crust,
over which the new eruptions have thrown two little mountains,
from which come smoke, ashes, and vitrified stones. The earth
is covered with bits of transparent glass. This crust is so consi-
derable, that, if it isnot propped up, the sinking of the matter
composing it will produce an effect like that of the eruption which -
took place in the time of Titus.”
NAUTICAL
Nautical Almanack.
NAUTICAL ALMANACK.
To Mr. Tilloch.
233
Sir,—lIt is to be regretted that the omissions and erroneous
figures and calculations still continue to be so numerous in the
Nautical Almanack, to the great hazard and danger of
our na-
vigation and commerce. _[t would render that work in some de-
gree more useful to the nation, if you would publish
in your
useful Magazine the following, being part of the errata in the
Almanack for the year 1819. TERRICOLA.
Facing pa. 1. Moon's eclipse, April 10, middle 51,8, query 5.2,
Pa.4. 9 gr. elong. 31 days, for day. |
9 passage merid. day 25, for 21 13, read 21 23,
— 18, last col. Ist day, add N.
— 28,1 day, U declin. after 19 24 set S.
_— 37, 28 day, for Easter T. ends, set Easter T. begins.
— 38, days 12, 13,14, 15, equat. of time, for 1, 1,1,1, set
— 40, o ieling: Jong: 13 day, for 79, set 19.
— 42, 9 day, declin. noon, after 1 10 set S.
_ 49, 17 day in the Calendar, set Prs. of Wales born.
— 50, 16 day, declin. for 85, set 58.
sae 52, 8 gr. elong. for days read day.
13 day, last col. for 12 59, set 22 59.
——— % | day, declin. after 16 ‘49, set S,
last col. for 18 13, set 18 39.
13 day, last col. for 17 56, set 17 55.
— 54, 19 day, passage merid. for 22 12, set 21 12.
— 61, 10 day, in the Calendar, set Corpus Christi.
— 62, 5 day, col. equat. of time, for 1 2, 2, set 2 2, 2.
— 64, gd, 19 day, declin. for 11 59, set 12 59.
— 66, 27 day, passag. merid. for 5 52, set 3 52.
— 76, last line, helioc. long. read 8 22 56.
— 85, in the Calendar, 7 day, dele Prs. Amelia b.
» Ll day, dele Ds. of Bruns. bl.
5 day, right ascens. midnight, for 88 44, read 89 44.
0,0,0,0.
— 86, 21 day, col. equat. of time, for 3 9, 9, set 3.3, 9.
— 88, x, 28 day, geocen. long. for 5 27, set 5 21.
——, ¥, 25 day, last col. for 10 54, set 10 34.
— 100, x, 16 day, helioc. long. for 2 030, set 1030,
» YU, geocen. long. 7 day, for 9 33, set 8 31,
, 13 day, for 83, set § 5.
—_—_— 19 day, for 7 43, set 7 44.
» h, helioc. long. ‘l day, for 26 90, set 26 40.
> Hi, last col. 21 day, for 6 27, set 5 V4
— 102, 12 day, rt. asc. midn. for 96 25, set 98 25.
——, 30 day, declin, noon, for 27 14, set 17 14,
Pa, 112,
234 Lectures.
Pawdi2, co, geoc. long. 1 day, for 417, set 5 17.
, 19 day, for 27 57, set 27 47.
ft — a, 13 day, for 20 23, set 3 20 23.»
— 113, long. noon, 27 day, for 10 15, set 1019.
— 114, passage merid. 3 dav, for 11] 18, set 12 18.
~~ 121, 3 day, set Prs. Sophia b.
— 133, full moon, for 1 0 11, set 1611.
— 138, rt. ascens. midn. 1] day, for 191 85, set 19155.
—
LECTURES.
The following arrangements have been made for Lectures at
the Surry Institution during the ensuing Season :—
1. On Ethics, by the Rev. W. B. Collyer, D.D.F.S.A. To
commence on Tuesday, Nov. 4, at Seven o’clockin the evening,
and to be continued on each succeeding Tuesday.
2. On Chemistry, by James Lowe Wheeler, esq. To commence
on Friday, Nov. 7, and to be continued on each succeeding Fri-
day evening at the same hour.
3. On the British Poets, from Chaucer to Cowper, by Wm.
Hazlitt, Esq. To commence early in Jan. 1818.
4. On Music, by Wm. Crotch, Mus. D. Professor of Music
in the University of Oxford. To commence early in Feb. 1818.
Mr. T. J. Pettigrew, F.L.S. Surgeon Extraordinary to their
Royal Highnesses the Dukes of Kent and Sussex, will commence
his Winter Course of Lectures on Anatomy, Physiology, and
Pathology, on Friday the 17th of October, at Eight o’clock in
the evening precisely. The Lectures will be continued every
succeeding Wednesday and Friday at the same hour, until com-
pleted. Particulars may be known by applying to Mr. P., Bolt
Court, Fleet-street.
Dr. Clutterbuck will begin his Autumn Course of Lectures on
the Theory and Practice of Physie, Materia Medica, and Che-
mistry, om Friday, Oct. 3d, at “Ten o’clock in the morning, - at
his house, No. 1, in the Crescent, New Bridge Street, where fur-
ther particulars may be had.
Pupils are admitted as usval, to attend the medical practice of
the Dispensary, and, when qualified, to visit the patients at home.
Clinical Lectures on the most interesting and instructive cases
that occur, will be given weekly by the Physicians in rotation.
The Lectures on Midwifery at the Middlesex Hospital, by
Dr. Merriman, Physician-Accoucheur to that Hospital, and
Dr. Ley, Physician-Accoucheur to the Westminster Lying-in Hos-
pital, will recommence as usual early in October.
Mr. Clarke will commence his Lectures on Midwifery and the
Diseases of Women and Children, on Friday, October 10th. The
Lectures are read every morning from a quarter past Ten toa
quarter
— ee ee
Lectures.— Patents. 235
quarter past Eleven, for the convenience of Students attending
the Hospitals. For particulars apply to Mr. Clarke at the Lec-
ture Room, 10, Saville Row, Burlington Gardens.
Mr. Guthrie, Deputy Inspector of Military Hospitals, will
commence his Autumn Course of Lectures on Surgery, on Mon-
day the 6th of October, at Five minutes past Eight in the even-
ing, in the Waiting-room of the Royal Westminster Infirmary
for Diseases of the Eye, Mary-le-bone Street, Piccadilly. To be
continued on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays.
Two Courses will be delivered during the Season.
In each Course the Principles of Surgery will be explained,
and the practice resulting from them, with reference both to
Domestic and Military Surgery, fully pointed out.
The Operations referred to in the Lectures will be shown in
each Course.
Terms of Attendance.—Perpetual Five guineas. Single Course
Three guineas.
Medical Officers of the Navy, the Army, and the Ordnance,
will be admitted gratis, on obtaining a recommendation from the
Heads of their respective departments, which must be presented
to Mr. Guthrie between the hours of Two and half-past Four, at
his House, No. 2, Berkeley Street, Berkeley Square.
Mr. Gaulter will deliver in the ensuing Season, two Courses of
Lectures on the Physiology of the Human Body, at No. 10,
Frith-street, Soho-square. The Lectures will be given on Mon-
day and Thursday Evenings at a Quarter past Eight o’clock,
after the Surgical Lectures are concluded. The Introductory
Lecture of the first Course will be on Thursday the 9th of Oc-
tober.
#,* In last Number we stated that the Course of Lectures at
Guy’s Hospital, on the Structure and Diseases of the Teeth, was
to be delivered by Mr. Fox; instead of which it should have been
by Mr. Thomas Bell, who has been appointed to sueceed Mr.Fox,
LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS.
To John Perks, of Carey-street, St. John’s, Westminster, Mid-
dlesex, for certain improvements in the apparatus for manufac-
turing, purifying and storing gas.—Dated 5th August 1817.—
6 months allowed to enroll specification.
To Thomas Taft, of Birmingham, for an improvement in bridle
and other reins used and affixed to bitts and leather sliding loop
to act with reins and bitts.—5th August.—6 months
To Samuel Merscy the younger, of Long-Acre, Middlesex,
for his improved mode or method of weaving, making, and aie
nufacturing of livery lace and coach me gy August.—2
oem
ASTRO-
236 Astronomy.— Meteorology.
ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA, OCTOBER 1817.
D. H.M. D.H. M.
1.16.15 I Sates SG Sao) Oo We
1.17.33 E of )’s cent. 13.15.41 p) 7
3.19.41 )un 14. 8 8 ) 6 Ophiuchi
4.1041 DyX 15.16.30 ) } ft
8.11. 5 ) 3y ny 15.1943 Do f
9.13.11 Dy mR 18.15.23 ). € VS
10. 2.10 ) 6 m 23. 634 © enters wy
11.84 DAY 24. 2.30 ) 110 X
1121.3 Dan 26. 0. O ) in apogee
12. 0. O )p in perigee 29.0.6 ) 125%
12.21.50 }) A x 31,°3..6 ).vm
The eclipse of Jupiter's 3d satellite on the 23d, which is set down in the
Nautical Almanack, as visibleat Greenwich, will not be visible. Indeed
the only one that is so, is the emersion of the first satellite on the 29th,
which is not marked in the Almanack. Th¢ emersion of the third on the ~
9th at 15 17™ 24s ought to be 2h 17™ 24s
METEOROLOGY.
Sun’s Atmosphere.
[From the Political Zeitung of Munich, of the 10th August. ]
“The great and remarkable opening in the sun’s atmosphere
of clouds (wolkigen sonnenatmosphare), of which notice has been
lately taken, was visible only a little before it vanished at the
western edge on the 5th of August, at which period a number of
little openings began to unite themselves into two spots; storms
and much rain followed. It must be of great utility to farmers
to be able to foretel fair or stormy weather, from observations of
the spots on the sun, which are easily examined in the middle of
summer, in the same way as we can do for the coming day or
night, by the rising and setting sun. A great number of the
latest observations confirm Herschel’s opinion, that like the planets
(verander lichen sternen) one half of the sun is less favourable to
an abundant discharge of rays than the other, and that many spots
on the sun make the year warmer and more fruitful. So much
is certain, that in defect of spots on the sun, the atmosphere is
more serene, as happened in the year 1811, in which none ap-
peared during the whole summer; but it showed likewise that
such a year must not of necessity be unfruitful, as was the case in
the years 1795 and 1799. It is yet more certain that very warm
and very cold weather can alone depend on the periodical abun-
dance or scarcity of combustible matter (Lrennstoff) in the sun,
since the moon and the planets can neither cause heat nor cold.
In the year 541, which was one of famine and pestilence, the
rays of the sun, according to Cedrenus, were as feeble as those’
of the moon, and yet the weather was so clear that in Italy they
observed
ee lik ates _
Meteorology. 237
observed the comets of that time; the chronicle writers remark,
that excessively dry summers (as the year 765, and the year 1800,
remarkable for spots on the sun, and woods taking fire,) follow a
very copious appearance of meteors (sternschnuppen). In na-
ture great matters more constantly depend upon each other than
minute, and it becomes us to observe and take advantage of
that dependance: it is to be wished therefore, that meteorologists
may apply themselves to a diligent observation of the spots on
the sun. ——
Meteorological Observations kept at Walthamstow, Essex, from
August 15 to September 15, 1817.
[Usually between tle Hours of Seven and Nine A.M. and the Thermometer
(a second time) between Noon and Two P.M. ]
Date. Therm. Barom. Wiad.
August
lo 60 29:66 S—SW.—Sunshine; slight showers, and sun,
66 and windy; fine day; bright star-light.
16 58 29:90 SW—SE.—Sun and hazy; cloudy and windy;
70 fine afternoon ; showers after 5 P.M.
17. 55) «29°65 W—SW.—Sun and clouds, and wind; showers
ie aa and sun; bright star-light.
18 55 29:98 W—SW.—Cirrostratus, and calm; cloudy;
64 showers after 3 P.M.; damp and hazy; much
rain in the last night.
19 61 29:76 SW—SW.—Cloudy and hazy; showery day;
. 68 cloudy. Moon first quarter.
20 55 29:75 _SW.—Clear and cumuli; fine day; moon- and
78 star-light.
21 55 29:78 N.—Wind and rain; great showers ; stars and
62 cirrostratus.
22 46 30:10 NW—NE.—Clear and windy; clear and cu-
65 muli; very fine day; moon through cirro-
stratus.
23 42 30:10 E.—Clear and windy; clear and cumuli; very
63 fine day; clear moon- and star-light.
24 60 29:77 E.—Cloudy; showery about noon; fine after-
61 wards; a shower at 9 P.M.
25 57 29°32 E—SE.—Gray; rainy after 7 A.M.; showers
58 all day; clear star-light.
26 53 29:10 E—SE.—Fine clear morn; great showers,
63.» and sun ; stars, and cirrostratus. Full moon.
27 51 29:00 SE—SW—W—NW.—Clear and cirrostra-
68 tus ; fine day; very slight showers ; stars and
cumuli.
28 52 2966 NW—SW.—Fine, sun, and wind; very fine
67 day; no rain this day; cloudy, but light.
August
238
August
29 52 29-66
67
30 53 29-87
71
31° 58 29-99
66
September.
1 48 29-99
65
2 46 30:00
69
3 259"! 29°07
74
4 59 30-00
68
5 50 30-20
72
6- 50 80:20
72
7 68 30:20
59
§ 51 30:00
76
9 57 29-00
67
10 57 30°10
66
11 53 30°09
64
12 55 80-00
68
138 62 29°98
64
14 55 29-98
59
15. 61 29-98
66
Meteorology.
W.—Clear, and cirrostratus; fine day; slight
showers, and sun; clear moon and star-light.
SW—W.—Very fine morn; cloudy, and dark ;
some rain in the evening.
SW.—Sun and wind; fine day; windy; no
rain today ; bright star-light.
SE—SE.—Fine morning; calm; fine day;
hot; no rain; star-light.
NE—SE.—Sun and hazy; white dew; very
‘fine day; dark night at 9 P.M.; star-light
late.
SE.—Very hot fine morning; fine day; star-
light. Moon last quarter.
N by W.—Cirrostratus, and very hot; fine
day; hot and windy; bright star-light.
N—W—SW.—Very fine hot morning; fine
day; star-light.
NE—SW—E.—Hazy, and sunny; fine hot
day; star-light.
SE—E.—Foggy; deep azure sky, and cumuli
at 11 A.M.; hot sunny day; 64 P.M.
orange sunset, and purple mottled czrro-
stratus; star-light.
NW—NE—SW.—Foggy ; fine hot day; star-
light and wind.
N—NW.—Hazy, and wind; fine day; dark
night.
E—N.—Gray morning; sun after 1 P.M.; fine
day; star-light.
N—E—E by S—SW.—Rather hazy; sun
after 3 P.M.; fine day; bright star-light.
New moon.
S.—Hazy; a shower at 8 A.M.; sun; clouds
and wind; fine day; star-light.
NE—E.—Gray, and cirrostratus; gray day,
and slight showers ; dark night.
NE—SE.—Rainy till near 11 A.M.; cirro-
stratus ; stars and clouds.
NE—SE,—Hazy, and very damp; eloudy day; |
cloudy.
At Tunbridge Wells, the 6th of August, a large and very bril-
liant meteor was seen; a slowly descending body of fire, which
appeared abut half the size of the moon’s disk, and was highly
coloured,
METEORO-
Meteorology, 239
METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL KEPT AP BOSTON,
LINCOLNSHIRE.
: RIT a
[The time of observation, unless otherwise stated, is at 1 P.M.]
—a
MGM Seipmurmecncas ee
Chermo-! Baro- |State of the Weather and Modification
meter, | meter. of the Clouds.
et 2a ae
——_
68: 29°83 |Fair—blows hard from the S.
67° | 29°91 Fair—heavy rain at night
53° 29:76 Showery—thunder
64° | 30°01 Fair—heavy rain at night
70°} 29°80 |Ditto—rain at night
68: 29°74 |Ditto ditto
97°5 | 30° |Showery
61° 30°21 |Fine
65° 30°10 |Ditto nu!
62°5 | 29°&9 Cloudy
59: 29°29 |Rain
64°5 | 29°20 Showery
61° 29°40 |Ditto
63° 29°79 |Fair
62> | 29°73 Cloudy—heavy rain towards morn.
66: 30° ‘|Fair
67° | 29°06 Ditto—heavy rain towards morn?.
63° | 30°18 /Fine
65° 30°21 |Verv fine
72° 30°05 |Ditto
68: 30°21 |Ditto
70° 30°33 |Ditio
72° 30°26 |Ditto
yi 30°26 |Ditto
ve 30°13 |Ditto
62+ | 30°24 |Cloudy
61° 30°16 |Ditto
67° | 30°19 |Very fine
61" { 30°01 |Cloudy
61° | 30°15 |Very fine
55° | 30°12 |Cloudy—rain in the evening
This moraing (Sept. 15) it rains again. The Barometer is however
higher,
METEORO,
240 Meteorology.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,
By Mr. Cary, or THE STRAND,
For September 1817.
‘Lhermometer. Do :
si : Aas
weep}, % .| Height of |S 23S
eee 23 S Ss. the Barom. oe Weather,
2 S| z% |om] Inches. | Bs &
om sero! oo>
Zia
Aug. 27) 56 | 60 | 55 | 29.30 27 ~=|Stormy
28} 56 | 69 | 57 ‘63 44 ‘Fair
29] 57.| 68 | 56 "64 46 |Showery
30] 57 | 65 | 60 °85 48 |Cloudy
31) 59 | 69 | 56 *80 58 Fair
Sept. 1} 55 | 69 | 55 | 30:00 69 ‘|Fair
2) 54 | 67 | 60 | 29°95 46 |Fair
3| 60 | 74 | 66 "84 42 |Fair
4, 60 | 71 | 60 | 30:02 78 |Fair
5), 55 | 69 | 59 "12 57° |Fair
6| 55 | 73 | Go| -08 67. ‘|Fair
7; 56 | 70 | 60 "10 41 |Fair
gs} 56 | 73 | 61 | 29°95 42 {Fair
9, 59 | 67 | 56 | 30-01 21 |Fair |
10} 56 | 65 | 57 | 29°95 42 |Fair
it} 56 | 64 | 56 | 30°01 21 |Fair
12} 55 | 67 | 56 | 29°96 35 |Fair
13] 54 | 64 | 55 "04 25 |Cloudy
14} 54 | 61 | 60 87 o |Rain
15| 60 | 65 | 62 | 30°01 21 (Cloudy
16] 64 | 64 | 55 01 24 (Cloudy
17| 55 | 66 | 60 | 29:90 36 «‘|Fair
18} 56 | 60 | 58 "72 Oo |Rain
19| 58 | 65 | 56 *84 32 = |Fair
20| 55 | 64 | 57 | 30°00 30 «~(|Fair
21) 54 | 60 | 52 | 20°95 27_~«SX| Fair
22) 48 | 60 | 54 "SO 32 |Fair ,
23! 51 | 66 | 56 *82 36 |Fair |
24| 55 | 61 | 55 81 44 (Fair — .
25) 60 | 63 | 58 "52 85; |Fair |.
26} 57 | 60 | 50 +29 40 |Stormy
N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken atone o’clocks
i --—
[241 ]
XLI. On Colours.—In Answer to Mr. T. Harcreaves’s Stric-
tures on the Work entitled ** Chromatics; or, An Essay on the
Analogy and Harmony of Colours.’ By Tur Autuor.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — i answer to the observations of Mr. T. Hargreaves on
my Essay entitled ‘‘ Chromatics,” &c. in your last Number, I beg
to state that the pigments chosen to illustrate the various deno-
minations of colours therein, have been selected from the most
eminent for durability and beauty, and that J am not acquainted
with a any blue, red, or yellow, superior in these respects, to the
three pig ments, albveminings rubiate or madder red, and Indian
yellow, used in exemplification of the primary colours.
An eye critically nice will discern in every colour a tendency
to some other colour, according as it is influenced by light, shade,
depth or diluteness ; nor is “this the case only in the inherent
colours of pigments, &e. but it is so also-in the transient colours
of the prism, &c. Hence blue in its depth inclines to purple;
deep-yellow to orange, &c.; nor is it practicable to realize these
colours to the satisfaction of the critical eye,—since perfect co-
lours, like perfect geometrical figures, are pure ideals. My ex-
amples of colours are therefore quite as adequate to their office
of illustrating and distinguishing, as the figure of an angle in-
clining to the acute or obtuse, instead of a perfect right angle,
or middle form, would be in illustrating the conception of an
angle in general.
Mr. H.’s objections to the examples of secondary and tertiary
colours rest upon similar ground. ‘Thus purple, composed of
blue and red, (which in its perfect hue should neutralize or ex-
tinguish a perfect yellow,) denotes, in the example referred to,
not any particular or individual tint, but a class of tints, bounded
on the one extreme by blue, and on the other by red: and thus
also of the other colours. The secondaries, purple, green, and
orange, have accordingly been exemplified by intermediate tints
composed of two of the primaries alternately; and the ferdiaries,
russet, citrine, and olive, by like iabeemediatee of these secon-
rs ; for all these Menianniinatinnt of colours, as above instanced,
are indications of classes or genera, and not significant of in-
variable hues or tints of colour.
The remarks of Mr. H. are however perfectly just with re-
_ spect to Example X. of the Essay, in which the neutralizing co-
Jours are contrasted, and consequently require such individuality
of the opposed tints as may render them reciprocally neutra-
lizing.
The foregoing remarks upon the particular relations of colours
Vol. 50. No.234. Oct. 1817. Q apply
242 On Colours.
apply equally to their general relations or harmonies *: for the
harmonies are as infinite as the hues of colours, and no more is
designed in the Essay than to generalize or class the harmonies:
—the examples given of them, therefore, like the former, are
only indications of instances of classes.
Mr. H. observes that the examples of the secondary colours
are inferior in brilliancy to those of their primaries: but it is a
principle in painting, to the value of which our great colourist,
Sir Joshua Reynolds, has borne testimony, ¢hat the compounds
of colours are inferior in brilliancy, &c. to their components ;
because pigments, being imperfect in hue, have a neutralizing or
lowering effect upon each other, and a chemical action by which
they are in general mutually injurious.
With respect to the denominations of the tertiary, colours, I
have already remarked that those I have adopted do not express
individual hues or tints, but genera or classes; and since the no-
menclature of colours, in all languages, is confessedly imperfect 7,
and | do not contend for tints or terms, I shall gladly change
them for more significant appellations, if such can be found;
but that [ am not in error as to the thing signified, is manifest
from § 16, in which it is remarked ‘that blue predominates in,
and gives its relations to, the olive, yellow to the citrine, and red
to the russet.””
The use I have made of the double triangle in illustration of
the relations of harmony in colours, in coincidence with Mr. H.
is remarkable: yet, indeed, any trine figure migh thave supplied
its place, though I have long preferred it for its simplicity, and
as best suited to the philosophy upon which the Essay itself is
founded.
To conclude. I am pleased to find that my system of colours,
in respect to their particular. relations, accords with the pre-.
conceptions of one so well acquainted with the subject as your
correspondent appears to be; and since my doctrine of Harmony
in Colours springs as a consequence from the same premises, and
accords with the first principles of music, I anticipate, without
desiring to bias his judgement, a like concurrence of ideas with
that part of my Essay which treats of the general relations or
harmony of colours.
I am, sir,
Yours very respectfully,
September 17, 1817. THE AUTHOR.
* See some excellent observations relating to this subject by Mr. Tred-
gold. Phil Mag. vol. xlix. p. 262. ,
+ See Phil. Mag. vol. xlix. p. 49, Ou the Ancient Names of Colours, by
T.Yorster, esq.
XLII. Re-
[243 74
XLII. Report of the Select Committee appointed to consider of
the Means of preventing the Mischief of Explosion from hap-
pening on board Steam- Boats, to the Danger or Destruction
of His Majesty’s Subjects on board such Boats.
{Continued from p. 182.]
Mr.Grorct Dopp’s Evidence.
Wauene is your residence ?—I reside at No. 8, Oxford-street.
What is your profession ?—Civil engineer.
Are you a proprietor of any steam-boats ?—1I have five under
my direction. y
Where are those steam-boats employed ?—T'wo between Lon-
don and Richmond, one between London and Gravesend, and
two between London and Margate.
How long have they, or any of them, been in use ?—The
Thames has been in use three years.
Where does that go?—From London to Margate: the Ma-
jestic has been in use about twelve months, that goes to and from
Margate: the Richmond, from London to Richmond, has been
in use about fifteen months; and the other two are new vessels ;
all these vessels lie up in the winter. The Thames has not run
from London to Margate during the whole three years; she has
run from London to Margate two years, and was twelve months
in Scotland before I had her. I finished the Thames Margate
steam yacht at Port Glasgow in Scotland, and navigated her
from Scotland to Dublin, and encountered a considerable deal
of bad weather, and found her most perfectly safe. No material
accident happened to the engine, which worked during the whole
voyage; from Dublin I brought her round the Land’s End, Corn-
wall, into the port of London,
Are all the steam-boats that you now have, or that you have
had, used with condensing engines ?—They are.
Has any accident happened during the course of their being
used ?—The boilers of two have been injured by the imprudence
of the engine workers; but no accident of any description could
or has occurred to the passengers.
What was the nature of the accidents that happened to thosé
boilers ?—The accident was the partial coming down of the
boilers over the furnace mouth, being pressed down by the power
of the steam, in consequence of the engine workers not suffi-
ciently feeding the boilers, aud covering the flues with \water.
What are all your boilers made of ?—They are made of sheet
wrought iron, riveted together.
Are they cylindrical ?—They are not ; they are flat-sided with
flat roofs, and the others have dome roofs; there are at least 1500
Q 2 rivets
244 Report of the Select Committee
rivets in the larger ones; and I consider every rivet to be in @
degree a safety-valve, as in all instances of bursting or tearing of
this description of boilers the rivets first give way, and always
give sufficient warning.
How many safety -valves have you to your boilers ?—One to each.
Is that safety- valve accessible to the engineer directing the en-
gine ?—It is inall of them excepting the Richmond, and there it
is under lock and key; the safety-valve on board cf the Rich-
mond is uot a lever safety-valve, but they are simple weights
resting on the safety-valve, the whole of which is inclosed within
a box and locked up, so that no discretionary power is left to
the man who works the engine; , carry the key of it in general
myself.
‘Do not you think in future it aan be advisable, in order for
the greater safety of passengers, that boilers should be provided
with two safety- valves, one not accessible to the engineer direct-
ing the engine, and another accessible to him ?—I think. that to all
boilers there should be two safety valves; the one which would be
accessible to the engine-worker, should, be loaded with the mini-
mum of the pressure > that the chief engineer saw fit that the boiler
should sustain ; and that the one which would be inaceessible and
locked up, should be loaded equal to the ultimatum that he would,
under any circumstances, permit the boiler to support.
In a high pressure engine, what is your opinion of the weight
that ought to be placed upon the safety-valve of its boiler ?—
That in a great measure is conjectural ; but for my own practice,
I certainly should not allow the safety-valves to be loaded with
more than half the weight which I had previously tried and found
the boiler was capable of supporting ; all my engines are low
pressure engines, and the weight upon the safety-valves is re-
gulated not to exceed six pounds upon the inch.
What is the reason that you have adopted, in your steam-
boats, the construction of boilers with flat sides and ends ?—
Because that figure gives the greatest cubical content in the
smallest space, and compactness of the machinery and the boiler
is a desirable object in a steam-boat.
Is it your opinion, that such boilers properly constructed, and
of sufficient thickness in the plates of wrought iron, may be safely
used on board steam-boats having the low pressure engines ?—
Most decidedly so; I consider each of my boilers capable of
sustaining a pressure of fifteen pounds upon the inch, but I never
work them to more than six.pounds upon the inch.
Are those boilers so constructed, that the water entirely covers
the tube in which the fire is made In the Richmond, the fire
is entirely surrounded by the water; it is the case lee in the
Majestic; but in the Thames and in the new boat to Richmond,
‘and
on Steam-Boats. 245
and the new boat to Gravesend, they are what we call open fur-
Mace mouths: under the furnace mouth I place an ash-hole of |
east iron, bedded iu clay and upon fire-bricks.
Does the water in the boilers of this latter construction come
to the upper surface of every portion of that iron, the under sur-
face of which is exposed to the fire ?—It does.
If you are acquainted with any accidents which have happened
to steam-engines, not under your own direction, be pleased to
mention what they were and how they happened ?—I recollect
the boiler of the Caledonia London and Margate steam-packet
bursting at sea, by the forcing out of three of the rivets over the
furnace mouth, which extinguished the fire, but it was not pro-
ductive of any injurious consequences to any of the persons on
board ; and the Cork and Cove packet- -boat in Ireland, with
250 officers and soldiers on board, burst her boiler when lying
alongside of the transport that was receiving the troops; the
bursting made a fissure or opening of nine inches by eighteen
inches; but the steam which escaped did no injury either to the
persons on board or to the vessel, nor do I think under any cir-
cumstances of the bursting, if a wrought-iron boiler at the low
pressure, that is, the steam not being more than ten or fifteen
pounds to the inch, that the steam which might be suddenly let
loose or disengaged, would have power sufficient to raise the deck
of the vessel, or, to injure the parties on board.
Supposing an engine upon the high pressure principle to have
its boiler made of wrought iron, with the furnace passing through
water throughout its whole length, and the boiler to be provided
with safety-valves properly adjusted, so as to prevent the steam
being raised to more than half of that pressure which the boiler
is calculated to sustain, should you then have any apprehension
of ill effects arising from the use of such an engine ?—Certainly,
I should still consider them hazardous and liable to very fatal
consequences ; for all boilers deteriorate by work, by time, and
by oxidation, and what might be proof at this period, at a future
period the boiler might be incapable of sustaining. Besides, all
boilers are liable to casialties; and in ease of any accident which
might. suddenly let loose or disengage the steam of a high pres-
sure boiler, the steam itself would have sufficient expansive force
and impetus to destroy any vessel. I have known instances, as
I have stated before, ‘of low pressure engines bursting, where
they have done no injury; but [ cannot conceive it possible that
steam of ten or twenty times greater force could be let loose into
the engine-room without creating mischief.
What is the average price of steam-boats calculated to convey
passengers ?—The Richmond steam-yacht cost, in the first in-
stance, including the engine, 18004, the engine itself cost about
246 Report of the Select Committee
1000/.; the Majestic cost about 20002. and the engine about
20002. more; the Thames cost 2500/, including the engine, at
‘about 1200/.; the new vessel that I built to go to Richmond,
the hull and joiners’ work cost 750/. and an engine of fourteen-
horse power and apparatus cost 1170/.; the new Gravesend
' steam-yacht, the hull only has cost 750/. and the engine, 13702.;
but there will be various other expenses before these vessels are
finished.
Can you tell what is the expense of the boiler alone ?>—I have
just got a new boiler from Messrs. Jessops of Butterley, for the
Thames steam-y acht,: and I pay for the boiler 215/.
What additional expense do you apprehend is incurred in a
boiler of these dimensions by having it of wrought iron, beyond
what it would cost if made of cast metal >—Never having had
any cast-iron boilers, I do not feel myself competent to give a
satisfactory answer.
What additional expense would be incurred by the addition
of an additional safety-valve?—That would depend upon the
dimensions of the safety-valve, but in general the additional ex-
pense would be under 42,
You mean that each safety-valve costs about that sum ?—The
most costly of them cost about that sum.
Did you ever apply a mercurial tube as a safety-valve ?—Ne-
ver : I have to each of the boilers a mercurial barometer, that
operates as an indicator of the height and pressure of the steam.
Whereabouts is the expense of that barometer ?—I do not re-
collect, but certainly not more than 2/.
Did you see the Norwich steam-packet which exploded r7—l
have been on board her, and performed a voyage with her ; I
went down with a view of purchasing it ; I went down for that
purpose twice.
What was your reason for not purchasing it ?—Because it
was a high pressure engine, and liable to the accident which has —
since occurred.
Was that your sole reason?—Yes; I went a second time with
a party of German gentlemen from Bremen, who were anxious
to make an immediate purchase of a steam-vessel ; and they also
declined to purchase that or any, of the boats upon the river Yare,
solely because they had high pressure steam-engines on board.
Did you examine the boiler which exploded when you were on
board the vessel at Norwich ?—I did.
What opinion did you form respecting that boiler ?—I thought
that it was isnjudiciously composed, as I found that the barrel or
cylinder of the boiler was of wrought iron riveted together; of
that part I approved, but I found that one of the ends was a
flat plate of cast iron, and as these two metals under the same
degree
on Steam-Boats. 247
degree of heat have different degrees of expansion, I thought it
by no means a perfect and secure boiler.
Had you any opportunity of observing the boiler, so as to form
a judgement whether the cast-iron end was of sufficient strength
to resist the pressure of the steam ?—I had no such opportunity.
Had you any opportunity of observing when you were aboard,
whether the steam was properly regulated ?—Yes ; I found that
the safety-valve was pressed down by a lever, and when I first
went on board, the steam was so high as to require the weight
near the extreme end of the lever. My opinion respecting the
insecurity of high pressure engines is not formed in consequence
of the late-accident; for on the 3d of March last, having occasion
to write to a Mr. Rawlinson, who had applied to me to con-
struct a steam-packet for his friends, I concluded my letter with
these words ; “ Is it intended to have a low or a high pressure
engine? if the latter, I should decline having any concern in the
business, as they are attended with danger in any situation, but
especially so in a steam-packet, where the lives of all on board
would be at the mercy of the sobriety and attention of the en-
gine worker.”
You mean of course to say, that they would be so if no pre-
cautions other than those which have hitherto been in use were
adopted to prevent it?—Certainly; 1 allude to high pressure
engines, as they have been hitherto usually arranged.
[Mr. George Dodd was again called in on a future day, and
examined. ]
Can you inform the Committee, or give them any general
idea, what amount of capital is vested in steam-boats ?—I have
been on board and am well acquainted with twenty; and know
that there are more than forty in Great Britain; many have cost
5000/. others 60U0/. and one on the Thames above 10,0001. ;
I consider a fair average to be 3500/. each, making the vested
capital 140,000/. Most of them are fitted up with peculiar ele-
gance and accommodation, and the furniture and decorations
alone form an expensive item; they are also very expensive to
maintain, especially on the ‘Thames, by reason of the great cost
of coal. They are most numerous on the Clyde, where they
have been productive of essential benefit to the general commerce
and traflic of Glasgow, Port Glasgow, Greenock, and the neigh-
bouring country. ;
What description of engines and boilers have the steam- boats,
you personally know, or with which you are personally ac-
quainted ?—All I know have low pressure condensing engines,
and wrought sheet-iron riveted boilers, except the remaining
steam-boats between Yarmouth and Norwich, and one in Hol-
Jand, built at Yarmouth ; and they are high pressure engines.
Mr.
248 ; Report of the Select Committee
[Mr. George Dodd was again called in and examined.]}
For what purpose do you attend ?—To produce a new safety-
valve.
What are the advantages attendant on the safety-valve which
you have to offer to the Committee ?—I propose to the Com-
mittee the valve I now offer as a second valve, as it admits of
being locked up so as to be inaccessible to the engine-worker ;
it prevents the possibility of his obstructing its action, either by
going into the boiler when the boiler is cool, or under any cir-
cumstances whatever.— [The witness produced it. |
Is there any provision against the valve adhering in any part,
so as to prevent its operation ?—There is; the safety-valve has
not a conical bottom as is usual in most safety-valves, but has a
flat bottom resting upon a flat circular ring; the steam escapes
from the sides of the box through apertures so conataines as
that nothing can be introduced to impede its action.
Mr. Ricuarp Wricut’s Evidence.
Where do you live ?—At No. 62, Blackfriars Road.
You are an engineer ?—Yes.
Do you know the cause of the explosion of the Norwich steam-
boat >—1 do not know it beyond this; that I know that the
pressure must have been more than seventy-five pounds, having
seen it worked at that pressure. My supposition is, that the
man must have had it a vast deal beyond that, for there was no
appearance of the boiler giving way at that time, and it was only
a short time previous to the explosion itself.
Has anybody informed you, that to their knowledge the safety-
valve of the eugine was on that day, er on any other day, im-
properly loaded ?—No; but they were frequently in the habit
of putting an additional weight on the valve ; this man in parti-
cular, in both the boats which he had occasionally worked.
Do you know any thing respecting the construction of the
boiler ?—The boiler was eight feet long ; a cylindrical boiler four
feet two inches diameter; it was first made with an internal an-
gle iron at one end, and an external angle iron at the other end.
In consequence of ‘the internal angle iron having given way, a
cast-iron end was substituted, which certainly was not done in a
manner which I should have recommended ; it might have been
made safe certainly ; any boiler might be made safe.
Do vou attribute, in any manner, the explosion of that boiler
to that particular alteration ?—Not at all ; the end, as altered,
appears to me to have stood more than the end previous to the
alteration.
What pressure was the boiler originally calculated to sustain ?.
—Forty pounds to the inch.
Which
on Steam-Boats. 249
Which would you, as an engineer, recommend to'be used on
board steam-boats, wrought-iron or cast-iron boilers ?—I think
both might be used with equal safety; but that in proving them,
they ought to.be kept under the pressure a considerable time,
Say a quarter of an hour or half an hour; sudden pressure may
cause flaws in a boiler, which may give rise to accident after-
wards; but if under pressure a considerable time, you might see
the action of it. :
Mr. Joun Ricnter’s Evidence.
Where is your residence ?—In Cornwall Place.
What are you >—A sugar refiner.
Were you acquainted with the cirewmstances attending the —
explosion of the engine at the sugar-house in Wellclose-square?
—I was.
Be so good as to state them ?—I had attended from time to
time during the whole period of the construction of that boiler,
for the purpose of boiling sugar by means of high pressure ; it
was necessary we should have a pressure of from six-and-thirty
to five-and-forty pounds to an inch. I saw the-boiler when the
bottom only was put up, and I was at that time informed that
they had cast the dome part of it, and that it was not sufficient,
and that they were casting another. Some months afterwards
I attended, and I found that other placed there. I saw them
at work, and as I went in, Mr. Haigh, who was the engineer,
told me they were boiling at eighteen pounds an inch ; to which
I replied, that must be impossible; we have never been able to
boil at. less than six-and-thirty. Upon which I went to the
gauge, and [ found the index of the gauge standing at five- or
six-and-thirty.
What was the nature of that gauge ?—A mercurial gauge, in-
tended as an index. I said, ‘ Surely you are mistaken, this is
six-and-thirty.”” ‘Oh! no,”’ he said, ‘ that means eighteen.”
In consequence of which, I took an opportunity of measuring the
gauge, and found the gauge to represent inches, by which I
knew they were in an error. [| measured to convince them of
the error, but failed, and could not convince them of it till the
day after the accident. In consequence of complaints from
Constant, the Frenchman, in whose house it was, that it would
not do its work, and his fears in pressing it on to do its work,
the maker of it became anxious to show that it would, and a day
was appointed for this to be done. Constant, at three o’clock
in the morning, began his work, and continued boiling till about
eight, but boiling with a great deal of difficulty, because he was
afraid of putting the engine to the pressure he required. He
gave
250 Report of the Select Committee
gave it up; he said he would boil no more, and the men in at-
tendance, who belonged to the engineer, went to fetch the en-
gineer. He and his men came down, and persuaded Constant
to,have the fire lit again. He consented, after a great deal of
difficulty, and went to another pan in an adjoining building, and
there he was at work when. the accident happened. They were
urging the steam, and actually had put an immense weight upon
the lever of the valve, so as to render it totally useless. This
was ascertained by a Frenchman, who saw it, and who stated to
the man that he was doing mischief and doing wrong. He was
told to hold his tongue and mind his own business ; that he
knew his business, and they knew theirs; the consequence was,
that immediately afterwards it blew up. After this accident, I
went every day to the ruins, for the purpose of satisfying myself
of what had been the cause of the bursting ; and I saw the ex-
cavation until the parts of the boiler, which was of cast iron,
were found; and then finding parts of this boiler in different
places, the seat of the boiler being where it had been placed, but
the rest scattered about in different directions, | measured the
thickness of different parts of it. The bottom of it was two -
inches and a half thick, the upright sides of the bottom one inch
and a half thick; the lower part of the dome was seven-six-
teenths thick, and one of the parts at which it must have burst,
and where the boiler was completely defective in the casting,
was less than the eighth of an inch thick; it was not thicker
than a crown-piece: the wonder is that it stood at all, not that
it burst. 1 am sure I never would have gone near it, if they had
not assured me it was three inches thick in every part of it, and
I was over it repeatedly. 1 apprehend the cause of that bad
work was this; that the man was his own founder, as well as an
engineer, and having made the thing in his own house, it was
his interest to patch it up in the best way he could, and J under-
stand it was actually patghed.
Were you enabled to form any judgement to what pressure
the men had raised their steam ?—I could not form any judge-
ment of that, but I understand that it had been seen at forty-
eight.
What pressure was the boiler originally intended to sustain ?
It wasnot intended to be worked above forty-five, and was ordered
to be made to sustain the pressure of a hundred pounds to an
inch ; the whole house was blown to pieces, which, | apprehend,
arose from the fragments of the boiler striking the story posts,
by which the support being taken away, the walls fell inwards.
Do you know whether there was a second safety-valve to this
boiler ?—I do not think there was.
Mr.
on Steam-Boats. 251
Mr. Joun Sreew’s Evidence.
Where do you reside ?—At Dartford.
What is your profession >—An engineer.
Are you acquainted with the construction of steam boilers ?>—
Perfectly so.
Will you give your opinion as to the comparative merits of
wrought and cast iron?—I cannot conceive as to the safety of
the two, that there is any differeuce whatever, when the steam
is used, as it generally is for high pressure engines, to forty
pounds to the inch. If it was required to make the strongest
boiler imaginable, J should consider cast iron preferable, because
there you can get to an unlimited strength of resistance; wrought
iron you can only have of a certain thickness.
Are you of opinion, that a boiler can be made of cast metal,
free from all imperfections in the substance of the metal itself?
—No; I do not imagine that it can exactly, but at the same
time it ean be ascertained whether it is so or not before it is
used.
Do you mean to say by that, that you can by any pressure say
that it is free from imperfections; or do you mean to state, that
it will only sustain the pressure that it is calculated for ?—When
boilers are proved, they are generally proved to four or five or
six or eight times the pressure intended to be put on them.
But still, though they bear that pressure, they might have
those imperfections ?—Certainly; but without those imperfec-
tions, they would sustain, perhaps, fifty times what is wanted.
Are you then of opinion, that the proof arising from the pres-
sure of cold water, is sufficient to ascertain the safety of a boiler
which shall afterwards be exposed to the operation of fire or of
highly heated steam ?—Perfectly so; because I imagine it is a
great deal stronger when heated to the extent steam will heat i it;
cast or wrought 1 iron is at its greatest strength when it is at 300
degrees of heat, which | believe has never been arrived at yet by
steam.
Supposing the interior of the cast iron to contain cavities, by
which the thickness of the extenal coat is very much diminished
in those parts, and that those parts shall be afterwards exposed
to the action of the fire, do you apprehend then, that the ap-
parent thickness of the boiler would be any sufficient saints
No; by no means,
Have the boilers which you have been accustomed to use been
furnished with two safety-valves or one only?—T wo, universally,
Has either of those been locked up from the engineer ?>—The
sometimes have and sometimes they have not; I should imagine
two-
252; 4 = Report of the Select Committee
two-thirds of them have been locked up, but-I cannot exactly
say; one is always exposed.
Do you think any great security is produced by the operation
of a mercurial gauge, as a safety-valve ?—Certainly so. .
Are you of opinion, that by the adoption of those precautions,
high pressure steam may be used with safety, either with wrought-
iron or cast-iron boilers >—Perfectly so.
_ In ease by accident of the explosion of a boiler—which would
be attended with the greatest mischief, a cast- cr wrought-iron
boiler ?—I should imagine the explosion would be one and the
same.
Would not the cast-iron boiler be more liable to burst in frag-
ments, than the wrought iron ?—TI have never seen it; I have
seen several cast-iron boilers rend, but never explode.
Would not wrought-iron boilers rend?— Wrought-iron boilers
rendalso. It appears to me it is not from the pressure, but from
the heat where the water is kept from the place where the rend
takes place ; I never saw a cast-iron boiler that had exploded.
Supposing two vessels, one of cast iron and one of wrought
iron, of equal dimensions, which have no escape-valves at all, to
be burst by the expansive force of steam; from which of those
two should you expect the greatest mischief to arise ?—From the
cast iron.
‘ Mr. Witutiam Bronton’s Evidence.
What are you, and where do you reside?—I am a civil en-
gineer, resident at Birmingham.
You are a manufacturer of steam engines ?—Yes.
Have you ever manufactured any steam engines for boats ?—
Yes.
Have you any thing to communicate to the Committee, for
their information, respecting the best construction of the engine
or boiler, to produce safety to passengers on board ?—Yes; I
have, during the course of my experience, made several high
pressure boilers, and in turning my attention to that, I was in-
duced to examine what had been done before me; and I think
we have accomplished the object, in making a boiler, which I
apprehend will become useless before it becomes dangerous.
Are you acquainted with any instances of the explosion of
steam boilers ?—Yes, of both kinds ; I know of one which ex-
ploded at Hunslet, near Leeds, whilst I was within half a mile
of it ; it was a low pressure boiler; the cause was the weakness
of the boiler, and the effect was, that all the windows of the
neighbouring manufactory, which were of lead, were torn out,
and there were a great number of the work-people scalded.
Was
on Sieam-Boats. ah}
Was the explosion of that boiler owing to the weakness of the
metal, or improper construction ?—It was, perhaps, from the
weakness of the metal; I cannot answer that question exactly.
It was a cast-iron top; it was the upper part of the wrought
iron, joining to the cast iron, that gave way. Another instance
was at Shersiff-hill colliery, where the boiler was projected over
the engine-house ; there was no other damage done, excepting
breaking a capstan.
What sort of boiler was that ?—It was a round wrought-iron
boiler. Another instance was at the foundry near Stourbridge,
where the boiler bursted, and one man was killed.
In all the accidents you know of, did they arise from the im-
proper construction of the boiler, or from the ignorance or mis-
management of the engine-man ?—J have no doubt that either
the one or the other caused all the accidents that ever hap-
pened.
Are not common or low pressure engines often used at a
higher degree of pressure than was desi igned by the person who
constructed the boiler ?—Yes, and particularly in steam-beats.
I have had more than once occasion to correct that, or to re
monstrate with the engine-man.. I should say, that this danger
is considerably increased, from a number of the boilers on board
the steam packets having large flat sides.
Do not the engine-men, in many cases, increase the pressure
of the steam in the boiler, although it be of no additional ad-
vantage whatever in increasing the power of the engine >—Yes,
I think I may say so, if applied to the low pressure engine or
condensing engine. The additional force of the steam subjects
the engine to a number of inconveniences.
Have you been concerned in making boilers for high pressure
engines ?>—Yes.
Do you think that boilers for high presqine engines can be so
constructed as to become useless betore't they are dang rerous?— Yes,
Upon what principle ?— Upon the principle of having the
exterior part of the boiler independent of the flue, so much so,
that while the flue is injured by the current action of the fire,
the exterior part of the boiler remains, as to strength, unimpaired ;
and I conceive that a boiler thus formed, when the flue has been
worn very thin, and then exposed to a greater pressure than it
could sustain, the thin parts of the flue would act as so many
safety-valves. From my experience in regard to these boilers, I
know that when they have been worn for some time, you cannot’
have them tight.
You are speaking here of boilers constructed of wrought iron?
—Yes; I speak of them because I have so constructed them’;
but I have uo doubt that cast-iron boilers, if constructed upon
the
254 Report of the Select Commitiee
the same plan, may be made equally strong, having the outside
of cast iron and the inner part of wrought iron, would do the
same thing. sl
Do you, from your own experience, believe it possible to con-
struct boilers which will bear an expansive force of 600 pounds
to an inch ?-Yes; according to my experience, I have taken a
good deal of pains to ascertain the strength of wrought-iron
plate, and according to that I have made wrought-iron boilers
that would bear 600 pounds upon an inch.
What degree of pressure have such boilers generally been
worked with ?—Such boilers have been worked from forty to fifty
pounds upon an inch, and previously to being worked at all they
have been tried with 150 pounds to an inch, by water pressure.
Are you then of opinion: that there is no difficulty in con-
structing the high pressure boiler of wrought iron, in such a
manner as to make ft perfectly safe >—Yes, ] am of that opinion,
that the boiler may be constructed of wrought iron, with perfect
safety, at a pressure of fifty pounds.
After the boiler is properly constructed, do vou apply any
“further safeguards to it ?—We adopt two safety-valves, one in
an iron box under lock and key, and that is only at the control
of the proprietor, and the other is open to the engine-man; and
we also employ a mercurial gauge as an inverted siphon, which
in the event of the steam being stronger than the mercury ean
sustain, the mercury will be driven ont, and the boiler thereby
relieve itself.
Do you consider this mercurial gauge in any other light than
as an additional safety-valve, or as a contrivance by which no-
tice is given of the pressure growing too high ?—In both these
respects I employ it ; I consider that in both those two points
of view it is useful. .
Are you of opinion, that if the commun safety-valves be pro-
pérly adapted, the mercurial gauge may be dispensed with ; when
I say properly adapted, | mean sufficient in number and capacity,
and one of them completely secured from the intermeddling of
the engine-man?—I should think it would be safe.
What do vou think respecting the comparative mischief pro-
bably to arise from the bursting of a high pressure or a low pres-
sure boiler?—In the high pressure boiler the injury would be
done principally by the fragments projected ; in the low pressure
boiler, the mischie! may arise chiefly from the hot water and
steam. I may mention two instances in illustration of this ; the
first, of a low pressure boiler having given way in the bottom,
when a streain of hot water was projected against the engine-
man, causing his death; the second instance was of a high pres-
sure boiler, in which a hole was suddenly opened, the water aie
jecte
on Slteam- Boats. 255
jected itself and completely wetted a boy standing within a yard
of the orifice, who was not at all injured thereby. I should say,
the fragments from the cast-iron boiler would be, for any thing
that I know, equally destructive either with a high or witha
low pressure.
What injury do you think is likely to arise from the bursting
of a high pressure boiler composed of wrought iron ?-—I con-
ceive the injury would be more partial, in consequence of the
fragments being larger ; for | do not suppose that the wrought-
iron boiler would be divided into so many parts as a cast-iron
boiler would. :
Do you apprehend, that a wrought-iron boiler would burst in
the same manner with a cast-iron boiler; I mean, whether the
manner of bursting would be the same ?—Yes, I think it would.
Supposing that cast-iron boiler to be burst by the expansive
force of the steam, does it usually rend, or go into fragments ?—
Cast iron will go into fragments.
What would be the effect of the same force which would pro-
duce explosion upon a wrought-iron boiler ?—The probability
is, that there would be much fewer fragments in the wrought-
iron boiler ;—perhaps only two.
Does not the greater tenacity of the wrought iron prevent the
fragments from being carried off in the same manner as when
the cast-iron boiler bursts >—No ; I presume, that if the wrought-
iron boiler bursts, whatever fragments there are, they are com-
pletely detached from that boiler, and they will go as far and do
as much mischief as those of a cast-iron one.
Are the fragments separated from the wrought-iron boiler by
explosion, in the same manner as they are from a cast-iron boiler?
—Yes; they would be projected with equal force, under equal
circumstances. When I say that the wrought iron will rend, I
am also of opinion, that a part of it may be projected: | have an
immediate eye to the circumstance of one part of it being sepa-
rated, and that the one part would be carried with as much vio-
lence in the cast iron as in the wrought iron.
Is there not a greater probability in the wrought-iron boiler
rending, and not separating into fragments ?—I know that one
wrought-iron boiler burst with a high pressure steam; and a
fragment, the largest piece, was carried to the distance of 150
yards.
Was that a piece of the wrought iron ?—Yes.
Have you any thing to add to that part of your answer ?>—No.
You have said that the boilers which you manufacture, are
generally made of wrought iron ; what is your reason for pre-
ferring the wrought to the cast iron ?—I was induced from the
examination of several cast-iron boilers, which | found cracked
or
4
256 A short Account of Horizontal Water-W heels.
or broken in the lower part of them, which in my opinion arose
from the unequal temperature and expansion in the exterior part
of thie boiler; this unequal temperature is caused by a quantity
of: water at all times under the flue, and consequently of lower
temperature than the water above the flue; thereby causing the
upper part of the boiler to expand ina greater ratio than the
ander part. of the boiler, which in ‘my opinion caused the frac-
tures alluded to. This circumstance induced me to make use of
wrought-iron boilers, as I have explained: or described, ‘in pre-
ference to the other. a
In a steam boat, what boiler. would you most récomiidit to
be used to insure safety to the persons on board; a wrought-
‘iron or a cast-iron boiler ?—A wrctnee iron boiler, properly con-
structed. .
What safety-valves would you recommend to be placed: to
boilers on board steam-bhoats, to insure the greatest safety, or to
guard against the boiler’s exploding ; I mean as to number ?—I
recommend at least two safety-valves ; the one to be placed un-
der the lock and key of the proprietor of the vessel, so’secured
as not to be accessible to the engine-man 3 and one which the
engine-man has the usual control of.
Have you any thing to recommend with regard to the parti-
eular construction of these safety-valves, so as to insure their
acting and constant operation ?—I would recommend the valve
to be “nearly flat or quite so, which I apprehend would he:less
liable to be fastened by the difference of temperature to which
the valve and the seat might occasionally be subjected.
I suppose such a safety- valve would not be liable to be im-
peded by much friction?—As little friction as perhaps can be. »
You have not any thing particularly to suggest ?—No,
[To be continued. | ) 2
XUUMI.. A short Account of Horizontal Water- Wheels. By
W. Apamson*, Esq. if
Ox perusing the works of mechanical writers, it appears, that
tmany attempts have been made to construct horizontal water-
wheels, on such a principle as would give them sufficient power
for mechanical purposes; but that: these attempts have often
failed.
The principal kinds, of which we have any account, are :
1. Such as have their vanes or floats placed round the rim,
like those of a wind-mill, and which are made much-broader
than the vein of water which is to strike them; the water is de-
* Communicated by the Author.
; ; livered
PHIL ,MAG. ae
WUOLs |
NN
Passe ge §
ss,
a
2
‘uppel
~ande:
‘tures
wrou
feren
In «
be us
iron:
struc
boile
guar
reco!
‘der t
‘as 1
~-eula’
-actir
to bi.
-hiabl
the-
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ped
ey
* Communicated by the Author. »
as ¢
A short Account of Horizontal Water- Wheels. 257
livered from a spout, which is so directed as that they may be
struck in a direction perpendicular to their surface.
2. Those which have their floats ranged round the rim of the
wheel in planes inclined to the radius, but parallel to the axis.
3. Those which have the floats standing on a soal, or on the
side of the rim, not pointing to the axis, but aside from it, so
that they will admit of the spout being more conveniently placed.
4. The centrifugal wheel, commonly called Barker’s mill.
This consists of an upright pipe or trunk, communicating with
two horizontal arms, each having a hole near the end opening
in opposite directions, and at right angles to the arms. The
water is poured from a spout into the top of the trunk, and
issues through the holes in the arms, with a velocity correspond-
ing to their depth helow the surface of the water, by which the
arms are forced backwards, and a retrograde motion is given to
the wheel.
5. In the year 1797, a patent was taken out by Mr. Robert
Beatson, for a method of constructing horizontal mills to go
either by wind or water. The machine consists of four rect-
angular frames or wings, standing at right angles to each other
on an upright shaft. The floats, which consist of some thin light
substance, are fixed in the frames perpendicular to the horizen,
and are so constructed, that when they face the wind or the current
of water, they are shut, and fill up the whole space within the
frame; but on the opposite side, when they return against the
current, they are open, and permit the wind or water to pass
between them.
This machine, as a water-mill, was intended to act in the cur-
rent of a river, or by the ebbing and flowing of the tide.
These seem to be the principal kinds of horizontal wheels;
and from the nature of the principles upon which they act, it is
evident their powers must be very small.
It however appears that many are in use on the continent of
Europe.
An Explanation of the New Patent Horizontal Water-W heel,
and the Principles of its Action.
A cireular wall, in the form of a hollow cylinder, is built in a
perpendicular position on a horizontal plane.
Through the side of the cylinder, at the bottom, several rect-
angular cuts or passages are made, the sides of which are per-
pendicular to the base, or bottom of the cylinder, and the length
of each within, is about four times the width. Fig. 1, Plate IV.
The passages or cuts are made quite round the circumferences
and so near to each other, that the sections of their sides within,
make an acute angle, and leave, between each two, a solid part
Vol. 50. No.234, Oct. 1817. R in
258 A short Account of Horizontal Water-W heels.
in the form of a wedge, the edge of which is perpendicular to the
base, so that.a line drawn from the centre of the wheel to it, will
form a right angle with that side of the cut which faces the cen-
tre. Fig. 1.
Within the cylinder is placed the horizontal wheel, with floats,
and a perpendicular axis or spindle, which turns on a point in
the centre. Figs. 1 and 2.
The floats FF are rectangular planes, fixed round the edge of
the wheel in planes passing through the centre, and perpendicular
to the plane of the wheel. Their height is something greater
than that of a cut, and their breadth rather more than its width:
also their number may be about three times the number of cuts.
But for the purpose of obtaining the most regular motion, the
numbers of the cuts and floats ought to be prime to each other.
Fig. 2.
The cylinder is surrounded by a reservoir of water, supported
by a circular wall, which, in low falls, may be equal to its depth.
Fig. 1.
The reservoir is filled, from the canal or river, by a stream
flowing through a head or slit at the top of the outer wall, and
at the bottom, the water flows through the cuts PP against the
floats, and turns the wheel. Figs. | and 2.
The width of the eylinder within, RR, is continued downwards
below the floats FF, toa depth sufficient for permitting passages
to be made under the reservoir, of sufficient capacity to take away
the water as fast as it enters the inner cylinder. Fig. 2.
The passages at the bottom of the machine, showing the
escape of the water, appear in the plate, for the want of room,
to occupy only half the circumference, but ought to be continued
quite round. Fig. 2.
In fig. 2, where part of a perpendicular section of the machine
is represented, the passage of the water appears to be only on
one side, but the opposite side is supposed to pass through one
of the solids which supports the reservoir and wall.
The wheel, to about half the radius, is open quite round the
centre, for the purpose of permitting the free passage of the air;
(this, in a large wheel, may be much more than half;) the re-
mainder is solid, quite round, and curved or dished on the under
side, for the purpose of turning the water downwards, and pre-
venting it from rising above the wheel, as it passes from the
float, ina thin sheet to the centre, where it forms a head, which
by its pressure facilitates its escape. Fig. 2.
According to the manner in which the floats are fixed in the
wheel, they ought, in the figure, to be invisible; but are made to
appear, for the purpose of showing the nature of the action of
the water against them, Fig. J. f
0
A short Account of Horizontal Water-Wheéls. 259
To find what depth the bottom passages ought to be, it will
be only necessary to know the breadth and depth of: the head
through which the water flows into the reservoir, as the same
quantity must pass both places in the same time.
The perfection of this machine may be shown as follows :
1. The floats being open on all sides, except that opposite
the centre, will prevent as much as possible, any reaction against
the water coming in.
2. The space below the floats, and the passages from it, being
always sufficient to take away the water as fast as it enters, will
prevent any accumulation of tail water from impeding the floats.
3. The velocity of the water being greater than that of the
wheel, prevents any impediment by centrifugal force.
4. The force of the water through the cuts, arises from its
perpendicular pressure from the surface to the centre of force,
and therefore is the greatest possible.
5. The line of pressure against the floats, is as nearly perpen-
dicular to their surface, and as near to the extremity of the ra-
dius, as it is possible to make it act against the floats of a wheel,
and therefore the pressure against them cannot be greater.
6. The water acts against all the floats at the same time.
7. The whole of the water acts against the floats.
8. The water receives no check from the want of air.
9. No water-wheel can move with less friction.
Hence it must be evident, that these principles will give the
greatest power that can possibly be obtained from the action of
water upon a horizontal wheel :
But as a wheel acting on these principles has never before
been tried, it was thought most advisable to put it to the test by
experiment, previous to making it public. A very complete and
perfect model (or rather a little mill) has therefore been made
by Messrs. Bramah and Sons, at their manufactory in Pimlico,
near London.
The Model
stands on a base of two feet diameter, and its height is 53 inches.
The outward cylinder, which supports the water in the re-
servoir, is of cast iron.
The inner cylinder, in which the wheel moves, is of wrought
iron, and its lower end, through which the cuts or water pas-
sages are made, is of brass.
The depth of the reservoir is about 51 inches.
The number of cuts or water passages is 24, and their depth
one inch,
The wheel and floats are of brass. .
The diameter of the wheel is 12 inches, and the number of
floats is 79, a prime number.
R 2 A mae
260 A short Account of Horizontal Water-Wheels.
A mahogany-wheel or pulley of equal diameter to the wheel is
fixed on the top of the spindle, and above it one of about 6°5
inches diameter is fixed, for the purpose of making experiments.
The water escapes at the bottom quite round the machine.
Experiments.
With this model or mill, the foliowing experiments were made.
When the reservoir was full to above four feet above the cen-
tre of pressure, or middle point in the cuts, the wheel made
nearly four revolutions in a second, and, as no weight was then
suspended, this was its greatest velocity.
A cord was then fixed to the smaller wheel, and passed over a
pulley, with a weight suspended, when twelve revolutions of the
wheel made in
25 12 50-4
13 | seconds } 10 J) 96°92 | feet in a
6 ( raised 8 pariieis, 2h TeeK 210° minute.
5 6 252°
Then each weight multiplied by the height to which it was
raised in a minute gives the momentum ; therefore
12x 50° 4= 604'8
10x 96°92= 969:2€ _
8x210° =1680: =the momentum.
6 *252-) =1512-
- Hence it appears, that the third experiment produced the
greatest effect, and that the wheel then made twelve revolutions
in six seconds, or two in one second, and therefore it moved with
nearly half of its greatest velocity. Consequently, when the
wheel moves with nearly half of its greatest velocity, it works to
the greatest advantage, supposing the third experiment to be
the maximum, ’
Diameter or Size of the Wheel.
This wheel may be made of any diameter that may be required
for making a given number of revolutions in a given time.
Velocity.
The wheel may move with any velocity whatever that can be
obtained from the fall.
Mr. Banks, at page 105 of his Treatise on Mills, by taking a
mean of the experiments made by six different authors, for the
purpose of finding with what velocity water will issue from a fall
of a given depth, gives 5:4 x square root of the depth = velo-
city of the water.
But according to these experiments, 6 comes much nearer
than 5:4, and also agrees exactly with the experiments made by
Banks himself; and as, in these experiments, it gives nearly the
velocity
A short Account of Horizontal Water-Wheels. 261
velocity of the wheel, therefore 6 x square root of the depth =
velocity of the wheel, and this may also, in practice, be taken
for the velocity of the water without any material error, though
its velocity will always be something greater than that of the
wheel when moving without resistance.
On these principles a small wheel with a high fall will move
with a velocity amazingly great. Thus, let the diameter of the
wheel be one foot, and the height of the fall eighty-nine feet, then
5 Vv 89=56-60388 feet, the velocity per second; and as the cir-
cumference of the wheel is 3:1416 feet; therefore
As 3°1416:1::56°60388 : 18 revolutions per second,
or 18 x 60 = 1080 revolutions in a minute.
Power.
In the specification, the power of the horizontal wheel was
compared to that of the overshot, on a supposition that the force
of a stream of water acting against a perpendicular plane near
the orifice from which it flows, is nearly equal to the weight of
the column which impels it, as Mr, Banks has proved by experi-
ment.
But in making some experiments for the purpose of ascer-
taining the manner in which the water acts against the floats of
the horizontal wheel, it appeared,
_ That if a stream of water from a horizontal pipe, act against
a perpendicular plane near the orifice with any considerable force,
it will spread quite round in a thin sheet parallel to the plane,
and leave it on all sides in that direction; and So til
That if the edge of the stream be brought a little beyond the
edge of the plane, so that part of it may pass by, it will form an
angle with it; and that as the further side of the stream ap-
proaches the edge of the plane, the angle will increase until they
coincide, when it will become a right angle.
Hence it is evident, that there is a reaction in this machine
against the water coming in, which it is impossible to avoid, and
that this is what reduces its power below that of the overshot
wheel ; but that this reaction is very different from the centri-
fugal force.
Before we proceed to compute the power of the wheel, it is
necessary to observe, that when the radius is one, the width of a
cut is equal to the natural versed sine of the angle between two
of them, taken at the centre, aud therefore,
If the versed sine of the angle between two cuts be multiplied
by any given radius, the product will be the width of a cut to
that radius; and siuce all the cuts, in any cylinder, are equal in
width, as they are also in depth; therefore,
If the versed sine of the angle between two cuts be multiplied
R 3 by
262 A short Account of Horizontal Water-Wheels.
by the radius, and then by the number and depth of the cuts,
that is versed sine x radius x number x depth, it gives the
area of a rectangular section equal to the area of the perpendi-
cular sections of all the cuts.
In the model the radius is six inches, the number of cuts
twenty-four, and their depth one inch; the angle 15°, and its
versed sine ‘034074 ; ; therefore
*034074 x 6 x 24 x 1=4-906656 square inches,
which, in consequence of the cuts having been made rather wider
: . 5 5
by dressing, is taken at five square inches or jaz Square feet,
and the water being four feet deep, its velocity was 6./4=12
feet per second ;
5x19 5
Hence, arr Tate cubic feet of water issue in a second, or
5x60 z f : 5
> = 25 cubic feet in a minute.
Therefore for the power, we have 25 cubic feet, or 25 x 62°5
- pounds of water descending through four feet in a minute ; hence
The momentum of the power is 25 x 62°5 x 4=6250.
Then to find the momentum of the effect, according to Mr.
Smeaton’s method ;—when the wheel moved without water, a
weight of ten ounces gave it a velocity of two revolutions per
second. Therefore according to the third experiment, the
weight raised was eight pounds ten ounces, or 8°625 pounds ;
consequently,
The momentum of the effect was 8625 x 210=1811°25 and
as 6250: 1811:25.::1:°2398 the effect. But ifthe velocity of
the water be found according te Mr. Banks’s mean of the ex-
periments of six different authors, it will be 108 feet per se-
cond, and the effect will be -522; and this makes the power of
the horizontal wheel double to that of the undershot, according
to the second example in Mr. Smeaton’s Table.
Remark.
Mr. Smeaton, at> page 12 of his Treatise on Mills, gives an
account of an PapeTiment on the undershot wheel, where it ap-
pears that his head, or fall, of water was thirty inches, and that
264°7 pounds weight of-w ater was expended, or descended
through thirty inches in a minute; hence,
The momentum of the power was 264:7 x30=7941, that
9-375 pounds weight of water was raised through 135 inches
in a minute by the wheel ; hence,
The momentum of the effect was 9°375 x 185= 1265-625,
therefore as 7941 : 1265°625 :;1 ; +1594 the effect, and -1594 x 2
=='3188= double the effect.
But
4
A short Account of Horizontal Water-W heels. 263
But it appears that Mr. Smeaton has inserted °32 in his
Table as the true effect in this case, on a supposition that the
same effect may be obtained irom half the power; and he there-
fore multiplies the weight of the water expended in a minute by
15, or half the depth, instead of 50, which was the depth through
which the water, that turned the wheel, actually descended in a
minute.
Had he made such a discovery as this, he ought to have given
a demonstration, or a clear proof of its truth; for his argument
about a virtual head, certainly gives no such proof: on the con-
trary, he says that he has obtained more than double of what is
assigned by theory; and that this is very different from the opi-
nions and calculations of authors of the first reputation.
The reason of making this remark is, that it is probable the
power of the horizontal wheel will be compared with that of the
undershot, according to Mr. Smeaton’s Table, where he has in-
serted double the power of the undershot wheel (or very near it)
according to his own experiments.
The horizontal wheel may be used in any fall however high or
low.
In low Falls.
Example.—Let the depth of the fall be two feet, diameter of
the wheel twenty feet, number of cuts twenty-four, and their
depth four inches ;
Then, by the Table, the angle between two cuts is 15°, and
its versed sine ‘034074 ; therefore,
034074 x 10 x 24 x +=2°72592 square feet, or the area of a
rectangular passage equal to that of the perpendicular sections
of all the cuts.
This may therefore be considered as the base of a column of
water, the height of which is the perpendicular distance from the
surface to the centre of pressure or the middle point of the cut,
which in this case is 22 inches, or |! feet; hence we have
2°7592 x ‘3 =5 cubic feet, nearly =5 x 62°5=312°5 pounds
weight constantly impelling the water through the cuts against
the floats quite round the wheel, and 312-5 divided by 24, gives
13 pounds for each cut or passage. ‘The greatest velocity of
the wheel will be 6/11 = V 66=8'124, or about eight feet per
second; and therefore when it works to the greatest advantage
will be four feet per second. Then
as 4:1°;;20x3'1416; 157 time of a revolution,
In high Falls,
In order to obtain the full force of the water here in the same
manner
zo4 A short Account of Horizontal Water-W heels.
manner as in low falls, the height of the walls of the reservoir
-would require to be equal to that of the fall. But,
This however is not necessary, as both the reservoir and inner
eylinder may be covered at any proper height, as denoted by the
dotted line in the plate, but the reservoir must be made water-
tight.
A pipe may then be brought from the surface of the water ta
the bottom of the reservoir, where it must be so fixed that the
water may flow from it in the same direction as the wheel turns,
which, in that respect, will augment the power.
But as this supplying pipe will be in the place of a reservoir
of water, the area of a section of it ought to be greater than the
sum of the areas of the perpendicular sections of all the cuts,
and it ought also to be constantly full up to the top, otherwise
the water would not be supplied so fast as it could pass through
the cuts, and a part of the power would be lost, unless there were
a contrivance for covering or shutting up part of the cuts.
Example.—Let the depth of the fall be 81 feet, diameter of
the wheel 10 feet, number of cuts 30, arid their depth half a
foot.
Then, by the Table, the angle between two cuts will be 12°,
and its versed sine -021552; therefore,
(021852 x 5 x 30 x 1=1-6389 square feet, which is the area
of a rectangular passage, equal to that of the perpendicular sec-
tions of all the cuts, and the diameter of a circular pipe of equal
area will be 17-3 inches, therefore the diameter of the supplying
pipe must be greater than this.
If the radius of the wheel and depth of the cuts remain the
same, the greater the number is, the less will the area of the
whole of their perpendicular sections be, and consequently, the
less water will pass through them, but it will act nearer to the
circumference ; and therefore, in proportion to its quantity, will
produce a greater effect.
Example.—Let the numbers be 12, 16, 30, 50, then these
multiplied by their respective versed sines will be
; 4 qn 2 ry r O07 which are the ratios of the sums of
x 076120=1-21792 tl £ thei + ania
30 x-021852=0°65556 he areas of their perpendicular
50 x +007885 =0-39425 9 Sections.
Hence, when the quantity, or supply of water is great, the
number of cuts must be small, and, on the vontrary, when it is
small,.the number of evts must be great in order to obtain the
greatest effect,
The
ee ee
ae ee
A short Account of Horizontal Water-Wheels. — 26:
os
a
The following Problems may sometimes be useful :
Pros. ]. Given the angle between two cuts, to find the number
of cuts.
Rule. Find the angle in the table, and against it stands the
number.
Pros. 2. Given the number of cuts, to find the angle be-
tween two.
Rule. Find the number in the table, and against it stands
the angle.
Pros. 3. Given the angle between two cuts and the radius
of the wheel, to find the width of a cut,
Rule. Multiply the versed sine of the angle by the radius,
and the product is the width of a cut.
Pros. 4. Given the number of cuts and the radius of the
wheel, to find the width of a cut.
Rule. Find the versed sine (against the number) in the
table, and multiply it by the radius for the width.
Pros. 5. Given the angle between two cuts and the width
of one, to find the radius of the wheel.
Rule. Divide the width of the cut by the versed sine of the
angle, and the quotient is the radius.
Pros. 6. Given the number of cuts and the width of one,
to find the radius of the wheel.
Rule. Find the versed sine (against the number) in the table,
by which divide the width, and the quotient is the radius.
Pros. 7. Given (D) the depth of the fall, and (a) the dia-
meter of the wheel, both in feet, or both in inches, to find the
number of revolutions in a given time.
Rule. Take sen, = 2% =n = number of revolutions
in a second; then x X number of seconds in the given time
gives the number of revolutions in that time.
Example. Let D=45 feet and d=5 feet; then
V/ 45 = 5230 x 5 = 2°562 revolutions in a second =”, and
2°562 x 60= 153-72 revolutions in a minute.
Pros. 8. Given (D) the depth of the fall, and (7) the num-
ber of revolutions in a given time, to find the diameter of the
wheel. :
Rule. Find (n) the number of revolutions in a second:
Then since Ny .*. = —— sd,
52360
Example. Let D=30 feet, and the number of revolutions
in
266 <A short Account of Horizontal Water-Wheels.
in a minute = 138, then 18388+60=2:5=7, and
AW 30--'5236 x 2:3=4°55 feet, the diameter required.
It may be proper here to observe, that when the quantity of
water is not too great, nor the fall too high nor too low for the
overshot wheel; its power will exceed that of the horizontal ;
yet, in general practice the horizontal will certainly be superior,
for the following reasons :
1. Because the horizontal will act in any fall, its friction will
not increase by the increase of water, and as it receives the wa-
ter quite round the circumference, it will (when the supply is
sufficient) work with a quantity greater than can be applied to
the overshot without great loss of power.
2. In the horizontal, while the depth from the surface of the
water to the centre of force in the cuts remains the same, the
power will increase with the quantity of water acting against the
floats, or as the depth of the cuts; and since the quantity of
water increases also with the circumference, or the radius of the
wheel: Therefore
The power will be as the product of the radius and depth of
the cuts.
Thus, if the depth of the cuts be made three times as great,
and the radius twice as great, the power will be 3 x 2=6 times
as great. Tlence
If, in the model, the depth of the cuts be made 10 inches,
and the radins 60 inches, or ten times as great, the power will
be 10x 10=100 times as great, though the depth of the fall
would be increased only 4} inches.
. 8. When the depth of the fall is given, the size of the over-
shot, as also its velocity, is fixed ; for if its diameter be 16 feet,
its velocity, to produce the greatest effect must be five feet per
second; but the velocity of the horizontal wheel, with a fall of
16 feet, must be 12 feet per second. Again, an overshot of
36 feet diameter must move 5°33 feet per second; but a hori-
zontal with a fall of 36 feet must move with a velocity of 18 feet
per second, to produce the greatest effect.
4, The overshot must have a wheel fixed on its axis, and con-
nected with other wheels or machinery before any effect can be
produced ; but in the horizontal this is sometimes not necessary,
as a mill-stone may be fixed on the top of the axis, and made to
revolve with a proper velocity, without any connexion with other
wheels,
TABLE
\
On Ebbing and Flowing Springs. 267
Taste showing the Angle between two Cuts with its natural
versed Sine from 9 to 32.
| Angle. V. Sine. | Angle. V. Sine.
— | -—_— SS
}
9/40 0 |-233956 | 31 | 11 36-79 |-020470
10| 36.0 }-190983 | 32] 11 15- |-019215
11 | 32 43-63|-158746 || 33 | 10°54-55|-018071
12130 0. |-133975 | 34 | 10 35-291-017027
13 | 27 41:54]-114544 | 35 | 10 17+14]-016070 |
14 | 25 42-86/-099031-| 36110 0 |-015192
15 |.24 -0) -|-086454 || 37 43-78|-014384
16 | 22 30 |-076120 | 38 28-42 |-013639
17 | 21 10-59|-067528 || 39 13°85 |-012950
18 | 20 0 |-060307 | 40 0 |-012312
19 | 18 56°81] -054183 46-83 |-011720
20/18 0 |-048943 || 42 34-28 |-O11169
21.117 §-57|-044427 || 43 22-33 |-010657
199 | 16 21-82|-040507 | 4: 10:91 |-010179
93 | 15 39:09|-037083 |) 45 0 |-009732
24/15 0 |-084074 | 49-56 |-009314
25 | 14-24 |-031417 | 47 3-57 |-008923
96 | 13 50-77 |-029038 | 30° }-008555
27 | 13 20: |-026955 || 49 20-82 |-008210
98 | 12 51-43|-025072 || 50 12° |-007885
29 | 12 24-83}-023379 || 51 3-53 |-007580
30112 0 |-021852 |) 52 -39| 007291
—
=r)
os
KH
im
—
ININNTAININITOODaAawmovewoeo
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<o
W. Apamson, Ebury-street, Five-fields, Chelsea,
August 20, 1817.
XLIV. On Ebbing and Flowing Springs; with Geological
Remarks and Queries, By A Correspondent.
To Mr, Tilloch.
Sin, — Ix the Number of your Magazine for August, Mr. Inglis
seems to have satisfactorily accounted for the ebbing and flowing
spring of fresh water at Bridlington quay, by the pressure of the
sea upon a stratum of flexible clay which divides the fresh from
the sea water.
His assertion that this bed of clay extends to the Spurn Point
is probably correct; but he is not so, in supposing that it will be
found to rise and fall with the ebbing and flowing of every tide ;
at least that effect is not produced in the neighbourhood of Hull,
at
268 On Ebling and Flowing Springs.
at which town I resided several months about twenty years ago.
I was then assured that no pure fresh water could be had there,
but from under a stratum of clay which at the Block-house mill
was at the depth of about ninty-eight feet, and is supposed to
basset or out-crop a few miles west of Hull. I made some in-
quiries as to the stratification in those parts, and was told that
the hard chalk rock of which Flamborough Head is composed, is
at the surface a little to the west of Hull, and from thence is said
to dip E, to Spurn Point, and SE. into Lincolnshire, at the rate
of five yards per mile. The strata incumbent upon it reckoning
downward are ; viz.
Ist. Soil or earth, two feet.
2d. Warp, twenty-two feet, being about the height of the
highest tide at Hull.
3d. Morass, about three feet, in which are found decayed ve-.
getables and large trees.
May not this morass be connected with the submerged forest
near the mouth of the Humber on the Lincolnshire coast? See
Phil. Transactions for 1799, part i.
4th. Alluvial, at Hull about seventy feet, consisting of sharp
loose sand, carbonated wood, chalk, &c. below which is a stra-
tum of compact white clay more or less thick, between which
and the chalk rock is lodged the only pure water to be got in
that neighbourhood.
At Sproatley, the chalk rock is supposed to be 198 fect below
the surface.
Swanland and Riplingham hills, to the west of Hull, are re-
ported to be chalk with alternate layers of flint 6 to 8 inches
thick. The latter hill is 400 fect above the level of the Humber,
and is said to have been penetrated 50 feet below it.
As all the Yorkshire wolds are chalk hills, it is not probable
that water could be there procured by boring, as suggested by
Mr. Inglis; but in the neighbourhood of Hull, and to the east,
it is practicable. In November 1798, I visited a farm-house
about three miles from Hull, and about a quarter of a mile on
the left of the road leading from thence to Beverley. Four
months before, they had sunk a well and bored for water; and at
the depth of 58 feet came upon a spring which had to that time
invariably thrown up, to the height of two feet above the surface,
a column of pure soft water which discharged more than twenty
gallons per minute*. J have not since had an opportunity of
ascertaining whether this spring continues to furnish a supply
of water; but at Sheerness and Wimbleton it is well known
that wells sunk to much greater depth have continued to afford
* They told me forty gallons, but I wish to be within compass.
a Con-
On forming Collections of Geological Specimens. 269
a constant supply, though not to the surface. I was induced to
communicate these particulars to you, in the hope that some of
your intelligent readers resident in that vicinity, or others that
have visited it, may be competent to furnish more correct or
further information on this subject.
Iam, sir,
Your most obedient servant, and constant reader,
Wakefield, Sept. 10, 1817. W.S.
XLV. On forming Collections of Geological Specimens; and
respecting those of Mr. Smiru in the British Museum.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — ip cannot fail to be a source of pleasure to every one
to witness the progress of discovery, particularly in those sciences
which are of real use to mankind: and the more so, when the
nature of the science is such, that there are few men of observa-
tion who cannot contribute their mite towards its progress.
Accordingly, we find that most of the useful sciences have at
one time or another become objects of general attention, occa-
sioned either by some fortunate discovery, or happy simplifica-
tion of an apparently difficult branch of study. We are glad to
find that geology, among the rest, is now beginning to share the
attention of men of science, being well aware that its improve-
ment will be the natural consequence.
One great step towards this improvement, will be the forming
of collections of specimens, on such principles as are best adapted
to the purpose of identifying the superficial strata of the earth;
and of elucidating the nature of their formation, and of the
gradual changes which have taken place ou the surface of this
planet.
It cannot, however, be expected that the relative position or
identity of a stratum is to be determined, with certainty, from
any single character ; therefore it is obvious that a geological
collection of specimens must differ materially from a collection
of minerals. For the mineralogist, a simple specimen of each
mineral substance is sufficient—but a fossil shell, petrifaction, or
mineral is useless to the geologist, unless it be accompanied with
a proper description of the stratum, and of the exact place from
whence it was obtained: hence it is necessary that a descriptive
catalogue should always accompany a collection of geological
specimens.
Mineralogy is an art that becomes more curious than useful,
unless it be connected with geology or chemistry; but its useful-
less
270 On forming Collections of Geological Specimens.
ness to either of these sciences is unquestionable*. In geology,
however, it is as likely to mislead, as to conduct us to the proper
end of our researches, unless it be directed to its proper object.
The most important, and by far the most interesting part of
geology, is that which describes and determines the relative ages
of the strata which form the superficial crust of the earth ;—to
these strata we must look for a history of the changes which the
surface of the earth has undergone.
The limited powers which we possess of gaining information,
renders it necessary that we should examine with the most care-
ful attention the means which we have, and that we should ap-
ply them in the best manner to account for the phenomena.
The nature of the organic remains that are found imbedded
in many of the strata, appears to have been considered capable of
throwing some important lights on this subject, by many writers,
who seem, however, to have had no correct ideas respecting the
manner of rendering this kind of knowledge useful, and their
statements are general and incorrect ; such as must ever arise
from limited and hypothetical views of a subject.
It is to the meritorious exertions of Messrs. Smith, Sowerby,
and Parkinson, that we are chiefly indebted for the true applica-
tion of mineral conchology in explaining the structure of the
earth; but more particularly to Messrs. Smith and Sowerby,
who have directed their attention to the subject, with the view
of rendering it useful in identifying the strata.
Mr. Parkinson’s ** Organic Remains of a Former World”’ has
been some years before the public: in this work he has given
the localities of many shells, but not often their places in the
strata.
Mr. Farev has laid before your readers + an alphabetical list of
the places where the shells were found, that are described in the
first volume of Mr, Sowerby’s “ Mineral Conchology,” with the
sittations of the places, the names of the shells, and the places
in the British series of strata to which they belong—this latter
object having been but imperfectly accomplished in the text of
the “* Mineral Couchology.”’
Since that period Mr. Sowerby’s collection has been much
increased by the contributions of the friends of science, and he
has now published the xxxth number of his “ Mineral Con-
chology.”
* Many valuable analyses of minerals are extremely unsatisfactory, from
the want of a correct description of the specimens analysed. This neglect
has been very justly censured by an able cheinist, (Annals of Phil. No. 52,
p- 332,) whose example, in this respect, is well worthy of imitation; as
well as his manner of describing minerals, which is a modification of that
followed by the excellent Kirwan.
+ Philosophical Magazine, vol. xlvi. p. 211.
Also,
On forming Collections of Geological Specimens. 271
Also, in consequence of some pecuniary assistance from Go-
vernment, Mr. William Smith has begun to lay the result of his
researches before the public*. This assistance has been given
Mr. 8S. on condition that he arranged and placed his collection |
of fossil shells, &c. in the British Museum, for the use of the
public. He has already published several numbers of his “ Strata
identified by organized Fossils,” containing engravings of the
most characteristic shells of each stratum; and also the first part
of his ‘* Stratigraphical System of Organized Fossils +,” refer-
ring to the specimens in the British Museum.
The latter work describes the principal shells found by him in
the British series, from the uppermost down to the lias strata =
and with this communication you will receive an alphabetical
list of the places where these shells were found, with the num-
ber of species from each place. The object of this list isto direct
the attention of collectors to the places from whence specimens
are most likely to be obtained; both to enable them to repeat
the observations of preceding inquirers, and to extend their ob-
servations to other places f. y X and Z,
An Alphabetical List of the 263 Places which supplied Mr. W.
Smith with the 1155 Specimens of Fossil Shells above the
Lias Strata, that are deposited in the British Museum, and
described in the first part of his ‘* Stratigraphical System.”
Species. Species.
Abbotsbury .. a 1 Bath- Easton .. <s 1
Aldborough ., “iinet 9 Bath-Hampton eh 2
Alderton ah = 3 ———— foot of plain t
Alfred’s Tower 8 1 Bayford, S. of, vot ae
Ancliff ae “ie 4 Bentley ae +. 4
Bagley-Wood Pit .. 1k Black-dog Hill, near Q i
Banner’s Ash... oe 7 Standerwick 5
Bath, near, .. ‘sd hy) Black-down .. - ., 9
* It is to be regretted that Mr. S. had not encouragement sifficient to
induce him to publish those works sooner, as we understand he has long
been in possession of the materials; indeed they form the basis of his
great work “ The Map of the Strata of England and Wales ;” and there-
fore he must have been far adyanced in those mquiries when he began that
arduous undertaking.
+ We shall be better pleased with this work when it is furnished with
copious index to both the shells and places, with the bearing and di-
stance of each place from some principal town or village. Also a simple
outline engraving of each shell would be very desirable. These additions
would add much to the real value of the work, without materially increas-
ing the expense,—an expense which might perhaps have been lessened in
some other respects,
} See Phil. Mag. vol. xlv. p: 277-279, where some judicious remarks are
made on collecting fossil shells, &c. &c,
Bognor
272
Bognor ar a.
Bracklesham Bay...
- Bradford
— Lock site
in Canal
Bramerton .. si
Bratton- Turnpike
Brightwell .. ee
Brinkworth- Common
Brixton-Causeway, Well
Broadfheld Farm
Bruhami
Bruham-Pit (Coal Tia!)
Bubdown
Burgh-Castle
Burnham-Overy :
Bury aie
Bury St. Edmund? Biwi
Caisson Am sie
Calne ae
Carshalton
Castle-Combe .
Charlton-Harethorn ..
Charmouth
_ Cherry-Hinton a
Chesterford .. wie
Chicksgrove ..
Chipping-Norton
Chiltern
Gheegan-Maltord
Churchill
Chute-Farm ..
Clayton-Hill ..
Closworth ..
Coal-Canal
Combe-Down
Combhay..
Cotswold-Hills
Crewkerne
Cricksley-Hill
Crockerton ..
Cross-hands ..
Croydon af j
Damerton ..
Danby-Beacon, near, ..
. a @) 4a." .
Species.
—
BPO ea EOS Re Se eB eS END KE NOK UH WNT ews om
02 bo
bo
pet ee et ee Oe OO SIT BD
Derry-Hill
Devizes
Devonshire Buildings, Bath
Didmarton ..
Dilton Ay
Dinton-Park ..
Dowdswell-Hill
Down-Ampney ~
Draycot .
Drysandford ..
a: Holgi
Dundry
On forming Collections of Geological Specimens.
Species.
Dauntsev-House (in stone) 4
i
1
1
]
l
l
4
h
6
12
Dun’s Well, see Stilton-Farm
Dunkerton
Dursley 4
Elencross ..
Ensham-Bridge
Enstone
Even-Swindon
Evershot ‘0
Farley os
Fonthill 28
Foss-Cross_ ..
Foxhole :
Frocestor-Hill, top
——_—— — foot
Frome, W.
Fullbrook
Gagen-Well, near
Glastonbury bs
Gloucestershire
Godstone, near,
Grassington- Hill
Great-Ridge
Grimston, near,
Gripwood
Guildford
Happisburgh-Cliff
Hardington ?
Heddington Common.
Heytsbury ..
Hickling
Highgate Archway
Highworth ..
ee
OP RADIOS HK WENN RE RN OH WON Se eee
—
—
—
1
On forming Collections of Geological Specimens.
Species,
Hill-Marton .. F
inton oe
Hinton-Waldrish :
Hogwood-Corner .,
Holkham-Park ‘
Holt &s aff
Hordel-Cliff .. ae
Hurstanton-Cliff Ae
Ilmington ., .
Kellow jays
Kennet and Avon Gani
Kennington ., o®
Kent (County)
Keswick ot an
Knook wi
- Castle and Barrew
Lady- Sarat 7 wi
————- Farm
-, on Biss river
Landsdown ., i
> Near,
Latton de a
Laverton b%
eighton-Buzzard
Leiston
ND ee OO
—
Old Abbey
Lexham ee
Liliput .
Little- -Sodbury
Longleat-Park
Lullington ee
Maisey- Hampton
Marehain
Marston, near Frome . dee
May-Place, near, ..
Mazen-Hill ..
Meggot’s-Mill, Coleshill,
Melbury ve an
Meils ; es
Mesterham (Well)
Minchinhampton-Common
Minsmere (Iron Sluice)
Mitford oe yee
Inn ., pe
Monkton-Combe ..
ee @© @ @ @ .
es. pt 68. ee e- we s @ © & °
—
_—
DS OT et ee DOO DO NO Cee ee DONE Ne ee eee OD
Vol. 50, No, 234, Oct. 1817
273.
Specitse
Moushold ee ee 2
Muddiford .. aye 1
Nailsworth .. one I
Naunton, near, 4 1
Newborn AG Bea ee i i
Newhaven Castlehill .. 2
Newark, N.E. of, a 2
Northampton, N.W. of, 6
North-Cheriton wie 2
Northfieet .. os 1
North Wilts Canal .. 27
— County.. 1
Norton le ai I
—, near, wa 7
Norwich ‘fi otra
Norwich, E. of, oe 4
Oldford, near Frome .. 1
Orchardleigh .. oe 5
Ormington, S.W. of, .. 1
Penard-Hill .. 4 3
Peterborough, near, .. 1
Petty-France .. 3
—— $8.8 .W. of, ish
Pewsey oP we 3
Pickwick cant sin jank4:
Pipe-House .. oe I
Playford aie ee 4
Portland-Isle oe ‘ee 5
Pottern. ee ee 1
Poulton ia s¢ 1
— Quarry, Bradford 1
Prisley-Farm .. oe 3
Redlynch ae ee 3
Riegate, N. of, os 3
Road-Lane .. oe 1
Road .. on of 5
—-—— (Coal-trial) .. 1
Rowley-Bottom on 1
Rundaway- Hill 6
Sandford (Church-yard) 2
Sallyford ee ve 1
Seend (in Kennet aw I
Avon Canal) ..
Seagry (Well) ord
Sheldon ee ee 10
S$ Sheppy
274
Sheppy-Isle .. %
Sherborn .% vv halG
-, W. of,
Shippon wd “ve
Shotover- Hill. Fi
Shrivenham (in Wilts
and Berks Canal) .
Siddington .. we
Silton Farm .. sts
Sleaford = zs
Smalleombe-Bottom ..
Smitham- Bottom ;
Stanton, near Highworth
NWR WRK KEK ONN EK OE NK NON KK Oke eS eB OO
Preface to The Natural History °
_ Species.
Species»
Tellisford, near, © «. —”
—, S.W. of, ..
Thames and Severn Canal
Thorpe-Common ..
Tivhead oR
Tisbury an
Towcester
Trimingsby
Trowle
Tucking-Mill,
Tytherton- Roane
Upton
Vineyard- Dave
(Ju) ,
Co Re WRK NUON OR eK eK FHI ORWN,
Steeple-Ashton 1 Warminster, near, 3
Steppingley- Park Westbrook
—_—_——_- Field Westoning ..
Stilton-Farm .. : Westwood
» Dun’s-well .. Whitby
Stoford és x Wick-Farm 11
Stoke i eh Wighton ey I
Stone-Farm, Yeovil“. Wilts and Berks Canal 7
Stoney- Stratford Wilts (County) «dnl
Stourhead . .. Wincaston .. it 4
Stow-on-the-Wold » Neokytt cx 6
Stratton . a »5.W. ‘of, 7
Stunsfield .. ate - ql Winsley Yage oe 6
Suffolk (County) Woburn 5 ie 1
Sunning-Well Woodford... eel L
Surrey (Conny) Woolverton .. o's ]
Sutton . suntinl Woolwich 7 5
Swindon ne gern odd Wooton-Basset, near, 7
-Well, near Wilts 19 -Underedged 4
and Berks Canal Wraxhall *s ve 1
‘Tattingstone-Park .. 6 Writhlington .. pie 2
Taverham.. in 4 Yarmouth, W. of, 4
Teffont ss - 3 x eovil 7
XLVI. Preface to “The Natural History of the Mineral King-
dom. By Jouy WitiiaMs, Mineral Surveyor, F.S.S.A.”
[Concluded from p. 200. |
Il. Tue second thing proposed to our consideration in Dr.
Hutton’s Theory is, the consolidation of ovr rocks and strata,
while still under the waters of the ocean, by the heat and fusion
of subterraneous fire. —Our author’ s doctrine of subterraneous
fire,
of the Mineral Kingdom.” (275
fire, and its effects in the consolidation of the strata, by means
of fusion beneath the waters of the ocean, is a singular hypo-
thesis; but it is not altogether new. :
Woodward and others have advanced the notions of central
and subterraneous fires; and they also pretended to account for
many of the phenomena of nature from the operations or effects
of these imaginary fires: but I do not know that any of them
before our author gave these fires the office of melting the earthy
mass, in order to cement and consolidate our strata; though
Ray conjectures, that mountains might be forced up by earth-
quakes, and by the flatus of volcanic fire; but none, that I know
of, before the Doctor, have given this imaginary central fire the
‘olice of melting the cozy bed of the ocean, in order to reduce it
-by fusion into solid rocks and strata.
Our author’s abilities as a naturalist, and his chemical know-
ledge, enable him to produce and reason upon many seeming
facts to support and illustrate his hypothesis ; but, unluckily for
this proposition, we see in little the very same natural effects
“produced before our eyes without the application of visible fire,
though not without the influence and effects of the elementary
atmospherical fire.
There is no room to doubt, that natural chemistry is more
powerful, extensive, and various than the artificial. It is difficult
to limit the powers and effects of variously combined mineral
liquors, in dissolving part of various fossil bodies in their natural
situations, in the bowels of the earth. One thing we are sure
of,—that various terrene matters are in a dissolved or fluid state,
anixed with the waters which percollate the pores and cranies of
our rocks and strata.
As an undeniable proof of this, we see numerous fossil hodies
of various qualities and degrees of hardness formed and forming
before our eyes, which are as well consolidated and cemented as
if they had been fused by fire upon our-author’s plan of eemen-
tation; and these, not in small and inconsiderable erystalliza-
‘tions and stallaetites, but we see considerably large coneretions
formed by a gradual accretion of matter-deposited by water. In
some places, we see caverns of various degrees of extent and
magnitude, some of which are almost, and others altogether
filled up by a small flow of water, depositing particles of stony
matter; and the bodies so formed are afterwards consolidated, in
the course of no very long time, to degrees ot strength and in-
duration equal to any of our rocks and strata. Mines recently
worked are in many places so quickly choaked up by the forma-
tion of various concretions, that we are often obliged to demolish
them, to prevent their stopping up the passage altogether.
{ have seen subterraneous mines or galleries, which were
$2 worked
276 Preface to “ The Natural History
worked by my direction, so filled up and choaked ; and [ catt
shew some others, which, if neglected for ten or a dozen of
years, would be choaked up so effectually, and the contents
would be so consolidated, that it would require an expense to
open them up again, almost if not fully equal to the first. The
history or natural philosophy of stony concretions is already ex-
plained in the second volume of my Essays, and need not be re-
peated here.
We find in many places various kinds of spar, of fluor, and of
agate, formed and forming by water, depositing particles of dif-
ferent qualities. Some of the bodies so formed are homogeneous,
andsome compounded. Some of these concretions assume a fine
smooth uniform texture; others exhibit, when broken, a cubié
and a tabulated structure; and others again have a coarse and
homely grain in the inside.
In some places, the quality of these concretions is calcareous,
in others siliceous, and in many places ferruginous ; and we fre-
quently find them containing a mixture of particles of different
qualities. Many of these acquire degrees of strength and hard-
ness equal te any of our rocks and strata; and therefore we may
infer, that the cementing quality is either contained in the mass,
of matter deposited by the water, or that it is imparted by the
influence of the atmosphere.
I am much inclined to believe it is the last; and I am _ per+
suaded that the elementary fire of our atmosphere inspissates a
great many fluid substances in all the three kingdoms of nature;
and by penetrating their masses, and being detained and lodged
there, brings them gradually to various degrees of solidity 5
strength, and hardness.
Now it is very observable, that the cementing matter which
fills up the pores and interstices of our rocks and strata,—which
connects their several parts, and promotes their solidity, strength,
and induration, has the very same appearance, and is of the very
er quality, as the various fossil concretions we are speaking
; but both the stony concretions and the cementing quality of
es strata contain a greater variety and mixture of “ghte matter
than we can easily enumerate or describe.
From these observations we may safely infer, that these vi-
rious substances of different qualities are now in a dissolved fluid
state, mixed with water. The various coneretions formed by
water, issuing into places accessible to the external air, justifies.
the inference, and proves the truth of it;, and that our rocks
and strata are cemented and consolidated by similar substances,
is evident to our senses: but whether the cementing matter was
eontained in, and blended with the general composition. when
the strata were first formed, or was afterwards insinuated by the.
pa
of ihe Mineral Kingdom,” 277
percollation of water, through the pores and cranies of the strata,
I will not now inquire.
Some small veins and masses of these substances, found pure
in our rocks and strata, seem to favour the supposition of the
strata being cemented by the insinuation of particles, and the
extraordinary induration of some of our external rocks counte-
nances the same idea; and I have no doubt, that the elemen-
tary fire has a great share in producing every degree of solidity
and induration,
Much of the cementing matter of our rocks has more of the
appearance of a jelly, which is hardened by degrees from an
aqueous solution, than of being produced by the fusion of fire.
These observations and facts make it evident to a demonstra-
tion, that fusion by fire is not necessary for the cementing and
induration of our rocks and strata. We have abundance of ex-
amples in little of a contrary process; and, in truth, the compo-
ment parts of some of our strata, the inflammable quality of
others, and every situation and phzenomena of the strata in ge-
neral, proves, that they have not been affected by fire.
We see evident marks of water in the disposition, structure,
and form, and in all the exterior and interior phenomena of the
strata; but we see no real mark or character of fire, excepting
in Selleaibes, which are accidental, locai, and very limited, have
every character of being accidental, and only produce disorder
and ‘confusion ; and, moreover, the origin and natural history of
volcanoes is pretty well known, and is investigated and explained
in the second volume of my Essays.
The philosopter or naturalist, who can deliberately embrace
the idea of our rea! strata being cemented and consolidated by
fusion by fire, either under or ‘out of the waters of the ocean,
must have his mind strangely warped by attachment to system.
Such a heat as would melt and bring the whole solid globe to a
state of fusion, must necessarily heat the whole waters of the
ocean up to boiling, and the boiling heat of the waters must
continue for many ages.
_ L suppose, that a solid globe of the magnitude and density of
our earth, heated to a state of fusion, would require many thou-
sand years to cool again to the temperature of our earth and
water; of consequence, the waters would be kept in a boiling
state the most of the time: What then would become of all the
finny and testaceous tribes of the ocean ?
Neither any of them, nor any of their spermatic powers and
virtues could possibly live in such a heat; of course, they must
be all created anew after each of these worlds is cooled, The
terrestrial tribes must be in as bad a situation as those of the
watery element, This appears to be an aukward hypothesis.
$3 With
278 _ Preface to“ The Natural History
With respect to the solid part of the globe itself, such a sub-
terraneous heat as would effectually penetrate the whole mass,
so as to brivg every part to a state of fusion, instead of leaving
distinct and regular strata of various qualities, thickness, and
other characters, separated from one another, as we find them,
the whole solid globe must be run together into one solid slag,
which might exhibit many cracks aud fractures after cooling 5
but they would all be the cracks and fractures of an immense
mass of ‘glass or slag.
There could be uo horizontal divisions, nor marks of strata of
any kind, nor could we have any coal, nor any useful stone or
fossil whatsoever.—Such is the nature of this stearate hy-
pothesis !
We have the most early traditions of our globe duderion a
great catastrophe and change by water, which is recorded by
Moses, and by many other eminent ancient philosophers ; and
Count Buffon, Dr. Hutton, and manv other modern naturalists,
see and acknowledge the marks of w ater in ail parts of the su-
perficies of the globe: but such is their bias to the system of
fire, that they attempt to convert all the rocks and strata of the
globe into so many lavas of different colours and structures ; and
in order to countenance aud assist their favourite agent, with all
the powers of a heated unguarded imagination, one goes up
to the source of all fire, in order to have the solid parts of our
globe melred down in the sun; another goes down to the sub-
terraneous regions, and blows up his fire there to a sufficient de-
gree of heat to melt all the superincumbent rocks and strata to
the degree of fusion, even when immersed under the waters of
the ocean, which is, I think, a new method of fusing earthy
inatter by fire, ‘
Others again are content to honour this agent with the for-
mation of some few of our strata, such as the basaltes, and a
few others of nearly a similar appearance: but after all that they
have advanced, or can advance, to countenance this hypothesis, it
is certain that none of the rocks and strata, which are a part of
‘the solid superficies of our globe, exhibit any of the real marks:
and characters of being formed by fire.
The quality, component parts, interior structure, and appear-
ance of our rocks and strata, are very distinguishable from slags
or lava. Dr. Hutton acknowledges this in the 66th page of his
Theory of the Earth, where he says, that ‘‘ a fusible substance,
or mineral composition in a fluid state, is emitted from those
places of the earth, at which subterraneons fire and expansive
force ate manifested i in those eruptive operations. In examining
these emitted bodies, men of science find a character for such
productions in generalizing the substance, and understand the
natural
of the Mineral Kingdom.” 279:
natural constitution of those bodies. It is in this manner that
such a person finding a piece of lava in any place of the earth,
says with certainty, Here is a stone which had congealed from a
melted state.”
This passage is abundantly distinct ; and I will say further,
that it is generally very easy for every unprejudiced naturalist to,
distinguish a real stone from a piece of slag or lava, The ba-
saltes is areal stone, which all modern philosophers have set
dowu as belonging to the class of lavas; but I have made it
evident in my Essays, that the hasaltes is a real stone, the com-
ponent parts of which I have pointed out ; and I have made it
appear, that there are in several places many and extensive strata
of this stone, which are disposed in their stations among other
strata of different characters and qualities, which are placed
above and below the several strata of basaltes, and these strata
of basaltes spread out as wide, and stretch as far every way as
the other different strata among which they are ranged; and
therefore, no man, who understands the real structure of the su-
perficies of our globe, will pretend to say that basaltes is a lava,
unless he says that all the other strata which accompany basaltes
are also lava.
Where strata of basaltine rocks are blended promiscuously,
among strata of different rocks, it is necessary either to call them
all strata of lava or strata of stove. Dr. Hutton indeed talks in
his Theory of inserting a lava, viz. basaltes, among other strata
of different qualities ; but I would ask the Doctor how he is to
lift up the superincumbent strata to a sufficient and equal height
from the strata below them, for many miles extent every way,
and to keep them asunder, until such a quantity of melted lava
is poured in as will fill up all the extensive empty space to form
the new inserted stratum.
I am speaking of regular and extended strata, which belongs
to the natural history of basaltes, and I can shew Dr. Hutton a
considerable number of strata of basaltes, blended stratum super
stratum, among other various strata of different characters and
qualities, among which are a considerable number of strata of
pit coal; and some of these coals are in immediate contact with
strata of basaltes, as the immediate rgof and pavement of the
coals; aud I can shew him all these several strata, with their
concomitant strata, in a stretch of many miles; and I can shew
similar phenomena in West Lothian, in Ayrshire, and in Fife,
&c.; and, therefore, it is difficult to believe that basaltes is lava,
unless we also believe that seams of coal, and all their concomi-
tant strata, likewise are lava, which sounds very like an absur-
lity.
It appears to me rational, and even necessary to suppose, that
S4 a bie! ©. wil |}
280 Preface to The Natural History
if the strata were consolidated and cemented by the heat and
fusion cf subterraneous fire, all the strata, which have a tendency
to, and may easily be hardened by fire, would be found in an in-
durated state; but this in fact is not the case,—so far from it,
that it is well known to every person who takes the least notice
of these things, that we find in all countries great numbers of
tilly and argillaceous strata, so very soft, that they differ little
from a mere sediment from which the water has been pressed
out, and which decomposes and falls to a mere sediment or clay,
almost immediately upon being exposed to the external air.
And it is remarkable, that these soft argillaceous strata are
commonly situated immediately above and below very hard strata
of indurated stone, upon which the external air has no sudden
visible effect. How shall we account for this fact upon this hy-,
pothesis? It cannot be pretended that these soft strata con-
tain any marks or characters of being consolidated by the heat
and fusion of fire; for they are not consolidated nor cemented
at all, but only compressed by the superincumbent weight: of
strata; nor can it be pretended, that they are not capable of
being hardened by fire. ‘
In fact, we know the contrary by experience, as they are every
day hardened in our open fires, and in proper kilns, for various
purposes, and to various degrees of solidity and induration. If
subterraneous fire had produced the solidity of our rocks, these
soft substances would have been indurated, as well as their con-
comitant strata,
But these soft strata are a proof, that our rocks are cemented
by a terrene, sparry, and siliceous fluid, which is, by degrees,
inspissated and hardened by the pressing out or evaporation of
superfluous moisture; and they also prove, that these argillaceous
strata can only be consolidated and cemented by fire, which has
not been applied to them. We can only select a few facts which
oppose this system. The instances to be found in the book of
nature are endless.
JII. The third proposition which we are to consider in our
author’s Theory of the Earth, viz. That the rocks and strata, .
which were formed and consolidated beneath the waters of the
ocean by subterraneous fire, were afterwards inflated and forced
up from under water, by the expansive force of the same subier-
raneous fire, to the height of our habitable earth, and of all the
mountains upon the face of the globe, is an hypothesis as singular
and extraordinary as the consolidation of strata beneath the wa-
ters of the ocean by the heat and fusion of fire.
Most of the operations and effects of subterraneous fire, that
we have any knowledge of, are outrageously violent and destruc-
tive, and.only produce disorder and ruin, If the bed of the
ocean
of the Mineral Kingdom.’* 261
ocean was really to be forced up by subterraneous fire to the
height of our mountains, we might expect to find as great’ con-
fusion and disorder, and marks of the ruins of a world, among
Dr. Hutton’s mountains as among Dr. Burnet’s; but I have
shewed, in my Natural History of Mountains, that the strata of
our real mountains are as regular as in any of the plains.
In truth, I have not scen such regularity of the strata any
where else as among the highland mountains of Lochaber, which
are the highest in Britain. The local examples, which I have
pointed out there, will evince the truth of this assertion to any
who wish to ascertain the fact.
Our author lays great stress upon the phenomena of minerai
veins, and of the ores aud other. substances found in them, to
support and confirm his fiery system: but, in truth, every ap-
pearance of mineral veins, and of their contents, point to water
with a distinct and legible index, as the chief agent in their for-
mation, &e, which subject I have investigated and explained in
my Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom.
Upon the supposition of our author’s Theory of Mineral Veins
being true, al! our veins should be wide above, and narrower be-
low, which is not found true in experience, very many of them
being exceeding strait and narrow for many fathoms next the
surface, which are very wide further down; and if this Theory
was true, every substance found in these veins should be the
hardest in all the howe!s of the earth, because the force and
violence of the subterrancous fire would have a much freer pas-
sage through these open fissures, than through solid unbroken
strata of several thousand miles of thickness; bat this, in truth,
is not the case, the inside of many of our mineral veins being
exceeding soft and argillaceous.
Again, upon the supposition of the contents of our mineral
veins being formed by metallic steams, forced up from below by
the influence of subterraneous fire, our mineral ores should be ail
pure and unmixed with earthy or stony matter, which is not 503
and moreover, upon this hypothesis, no metallic or mineral ore
would be found out of the cavities of mineral veins; but neither
is this the case ; on the contrary, every mineralist knows very
well, that gold, silver, cepper, tin, lead, iron, &c, are commonly
found, in a dispersed state, in large and smaller grains, flowers
and masses, throughut the body of many of our rocks aud strata,
intimately mingled with their composition as one of the com-
ponent parts of such rocks and strata.
Gold is generally tound in grains of various sizes, mixed in the
composition of many rocks and strata, and the origin of gold-dust
is from the decomposition of the superticies of these rocks, which
is washed down by the floods, and deposited in the beds of nny
rat
282 Prefuce to “ The Natural History
Iron is blended in great quantity in the composition of most
of our rocks, and so abundantly in some of them, as to be worth
smelting out for use; and, moreover, we have in many places
great numbers of whole strata of iron-stone so rich as to be equal,
if not to exceed, the best of our iron ores in the produce of the
furnace.
In working downwards, many of our mineral veins are eut out,
and fail at various depths, by a different stratum coming in ber
low, which the vein does not penetrate. The rich vein of lead
at Llangunog, in Montgomeryshire, which was five yards wide of
solid ore, was cut off below in this manner:
A bed of schistus. came in at a certain depth below, which cut
out both the ore and the vein so entirely, that no vestige of
either entered the schistus, or could ever after be found. Ex-
tensive trials were made on all hands to no purpose, as neither
vein nor ore ever appeared.
These circumstances do not agree with the idea of our ores
being formed by mineral steams, forced up by subterraneous
fires; and therefore we must acknowledge, that the substances
of which our ores have been formed were poured into our veins
by water from above, as well as the various spars and all the
contents of mineral veins.
‘There is a curious and surprising mixture of many different
substances in several mineral veins. In some of them, we find
lead, copper, silver, and several other metallic and semi-metallic
ores; and, in the same vein, we find calcareous and siliceous
spar, with a variety of other stones and mineral matters of various
colours, qualities, and degrees of hardness; and we frequently
find many of these, and sometimes all of them, blended together
in the concavity of the same vein.
Every phenomenon of these different ores and different stones
proves to ocular demonstration, that all the different substances
in the composition were poured in from above, and mixed to-
gether while in a humid or fluid state, and that they were after-
wards consolidated together into such compound masses as we
find them.
IV. The fourth proposition offered to our consideration, in
our author’s Theory of the Earth, is also pretty singular, which
is, that these operations of nature, viz. the decay and waste of
the old land, the forming and consolidation of new land under
the waters of the ocean, and the change of the strata now form-
ing under water into future dry land, is a progressive work of
nature, which always did, and always will go on, forming world
after world in perpetual succession.
This hypothesis agrees pretty nearly with Count Buffon’s,
only that the Count brings about his successive changes hy a
watery
ve
of the Mineral Kingdom.” ~ 283
watery process, without the agency of fire, after having the ori-
Zinal matter of the whole globe once thoroughly vitrified in the
sun.
Both the Count and our author strenuously insist upon the
waste of the superficies of the mountains, and of the rocky shores
of the ocean, by the force of the tides and storms, as an infallible
proof of the gradual destruction of the existing dry land, and
they both infer from hence the successive changes of habitable
worlds as a necessary consequence.
I have in my Essays fully investigated and explained dliase
matters. I have pointed out the utmost extent of the waste of
the mountains ; and I have acknowledged, that the weight of
mighty waves, propelled by the tides and stormy winds, have
powerful effects in undermining and wasting the rocky shores’; but
then I have made it evident, that this waste and destruction only
advance to a certain length and degree, where it stops; and I
have drawn the line, and pointed out the depredations of the
‘waves with some exactness; and have made it evident to our
senses, that hitherto they come, but no farther.
In some places, the sands are interposed to defend the rocks,
and the very slow diminution of the sands by attrition is abun-
dantly made up by fresh supplies furnished by the rivers. In
other places, the rocks are covered by a shelly incrustation, the
work of small testaceous tribes, which perfectly defends these
rocks against any injury from the waves.
We may suppose, that all or most of our maritime coasts were
at first exposed to the ravages of the ocean. At present, the
greatest part is defended by the sands and testaceous incrusta-
tions ; and it is rational to suppose, that, in the course of time,
all the shores of the ocean will be perfectly defended by these
means.
With respect to the real encroachments which the sea has
hitherto made, or may hereafter make, upon the land, I think
we may safely conclude, that a million of acres of new land have
been made from the sediment of the rivers for-every single acre
of the rocky shores that has been wasted by the waves of the
sea.
This is no supposition; it is a fact abundantly evident to our
senses; and it is a sort of retrograde operation towards the suc-
cessive change of worlds contended for by our philosophers.
Dr. Hutton investigates a considerable number of fossil bodies}
and explains their phenomena to countenance his own hypo-
‘thesis. It would extend this preface to too great length, were
I to examine what he has advanced upon them all.
At present, I will only take notice of the testaceous tribes of
the ocean, He tells us, that these exuvie, being found in the
body
#84 Preface to ** The Natural History
‘body and composition of our rocks and strata, is a clear proof,
that those strata were formed by water,—which isso far true, I
also assert, that these exuvie, and all the other remains of plants
and animals found in the body and composition cf our strata, is
a decisive proof that the strata were formed by the agency of
water; at the same time, I positively deny that our strata were
formed beneath the waters of the ocean,
The natural history of the formation of our strata is fully ex
plained in the second volume of my Essays upon rational aud
mechanical principles, to which I refer for satisfaction on this
topic. In my opinion, our author’s s philosophy is not more ex-
‘ceptionable in any part of his Theory than in treating of marine
testaceous animals, as he makes these in effect to be very €X-
tensive creators of matter, which is exalting them much too high
in our system of things,
The Doctor says, that one-fourth part of the solid bulk of our
globe is’ composed of limestone, marble, and other ¢aleareous
matter, which I think is giving it too great a proportion, My
general observations have beeu pretty extensive ; and, as far as
I can judge, all our limestones, marbles, chalk- -stdite find clay-
marl, which is soft limestone, and all other caicareous fossil sub-
stances, may amount to about a seventh or eighth part of the solid
bulk of the superficies of the globe, which is a great deal indeed.
Now our author asserts, in plain terms, and in several parts
of his Theory, that this immense bulk of solid caleareous fossil
matter was all of it produced from the remains of the testaceous
tribes of the ocean. In my opinion, the proposition may be re-
versed ; and we may with more truth assert, that the calcareous
matter produced them, than that they produced it.
Snail-shells are found in great numbers near old stene and
lime walls; yet we never imagine that these walls were pro-
duced by snails. It is almost evident to our senses, that these
animals find the calcareous matter in a fluid state mixed in the
waters of the ocean and the land, which they collect and use to
make shells, coral, &c. To say that they produce this matter,
js much the same as to say that they create it.
Matter is only changed from one form of existence to another
$n the reproduction and growth of animal and vegetable bodies,
but they really produce no part of matter that did not exist be-
fore in another form.
I grant, that the exuvie of testaceous animals are found in
great abundance in many of our limestones and marbles, but not
in all of them. There are very extensive rocks and strata of
the mountain-limestones, and marbles of various colours, tex-
“ture, and degrees of hardness, in which not the least particle of
shell or coral is to be found.
These
of the Mineral Kingdom.” 285
These shells are also found in several other strata besides the
ealcareous; all which only proves, that these marine exuviz were
blended in the mass of chaotic matter when these several strata
were formed; but to say that these animals can produce any
particle of matter, is not good philosophy.
We know that calcareous matter certainly exists in a dis«
solved fivid state, mixed in abundance with the waters ofthe
ocean, which is separated from the water in considerable quan
tity, in the common process of making salt of sea brine. How
the testaceous tribes make use of it in making shells and corals,
is too nice a process for my investigation.
Shells and corals could not exist, as we find them in the body
of the rocks and strata, upon the supposition of these rocks be-
ing consolidated by the heat and fusion of fire; because a smaller
degree of heat than is sufficient to bring our rocks to a state of
fasion, would calcine all the shells and corals, with the lime-
stones to boot; and when once they are calcined, they are no
more shells, &c. but quicklime, to which they would fall with the
least humidity; and the whole bowels of the earth, as far as we
penetrate, is full of humidity.
In short, few of our author’s conclusions are defensible,—and
no wonder, when he warps and strains every thing to support
an unaccountable system, viz. the eternity of the world; which
strange notion is the furthest of ali from being defensible.
All parts of nature, the minute as well as the grand and mag-
nificent, proclaim aloud, and point out in legible characters the
infinite power and skill of the all-wise and benevolent Creator
and Preserver of the universe. Tle Supreme Being hath highly
favoured us with an exalted station, and hath given us the image.
of his own attributes. We daily enjoy the fruits of his care and
benevolence, and we feel the effects of his goodness, whether we
advert to and acknowledge it or not.
The impressions of divinity are legibly stamped on all the
works of God ; and when we clearly behold the characters of
ineffable wisdom in the great plan of creatiou,—of infinite skill
and jutelligence in the contrivance, disposition, and fine fabric
of all the parts of nature,—of almighty power in producing all
things and upholding them,—and of exuberant and unbounded .
goodness in communicating good to all animated nature, we
then have exalted ideas of the Supreme Being ; and if we reflect
upon our own distinguished rank and situation in the scale of
beings, and of our privileges and powers of acquiring knowledge
and promoting mutual and social happiness, our hearts will exult
in the display of the glory of the Creator in his works; and if
we believe that the Creator and Goyernor of the would tee
anc
286 Preface tos The History of the Mineral Kingdom.”
and cares for us, our hearts will overflow with grateful love of
the Deity; we shal! then rejoice in his works and in his good-
ess.
But sceptical notions have a pernicious influence in damping
the sacred fire in our hearts, in cooling the ardour of our spirits,
and in blotting out the native impressions of the Deity stamped
on our hearts. The wild and uvnatural notion of the eternity
of the world leads first to scepticism, and at last to downright
infidelity aud atheism.
If once we entertain a firm persuasion that the world is eter-
nal, and can go on of itself in the reproduction and progressive
vicissitude of things, we may then suppose that there is no use
for the interposition of a governing power; and because we do
pot see the Supreme Being with our bodily eyes, we depose the
‘almighty Creator and Governor of the universe from his office,
and instead of divine providence, we commit the care of all
things to blind chance.
Like a mob, who think they can do well enough without legal
Testraints, depose and slay their magistrates. But this is re-
bellion against lawfal authority, which must soon end in anarchy,
confusion, and misery,—and so does our intellectual rebellion.
How degrading is infidelity! how miserable must a thinking
man be in distress, who does not believe that there is at the head
of the creation, a good, intelligent, and powerful being, who cares
for his welfare ‘through all the stages of existence !
That Dr. Hutton aims at establishing the belief of the eternity
of the world, is evident from the whole drift of his system, and
from his own words, for he concludes his singular theory with
these singular expressions: “ Having, in the natural history of
the earth, see a succession of worlds, we may from this con-
clude, that there is a system in nature, in like manner as from
seeing the revolutions of the planets, it is concluded that there
is a system by which they are intended to continue those revo-
lutions. But if the succession of worlds is established in the
system of nature, it is in vain to look for any thing higher in the
origin of the earth. The result, therefore, of our present in-
quiry is, that we find no vestige of a beginning,—no prospect of
an end.”
Thus, our modern philosophers labour hard to confirm their
favourite scepticism, &c. by all possible means ; or, in other
words, they labour hard to rob us of our best inheritance, both
here and hereafter,—to sap the foundations of our belief in re-
velation, and of the -superintending care and love, and of the
over-suling providence of the all-benevolent, all-powerful God,
our Saviour, who cares for us, and upholds us through all the
‘stages
On the intentled Exeter Steam- Boat. 287.
stages of our existence,—and like actual robbers, these philoso-
phers give as nothing in exchange for our natural inheritance.
If they say that we are poor mistaken ignorants, and that
they wish to convince us of our error,—this is worse than nothing.
If we err, in charity let us live and die in this error. It.is more
happy to live in a full persuasion,—in a feeling sense of the love
of God and man, while here, and in the confident hope of eter-
nal felicity hereafter, than to suppose that there is no such thing,
—that these divine faculties and propensities of our souls which
make us capable of loving God and man,—of admiring God in
his works, and of ranging through his creation with sublime de-
light,—shall perish for ever, and sink into the horrible gulph of
non-entity.—Let us turn our eyes from the horrid abyss, and
stretch out our hands, and cry, Save, Lord, or we perisli!
XLVII. Answer to the Letter of C. of Exeter on Steam- Boats
fo be used in conveying Merchandise by Sea. By Mr. James
Dawson.
To Mr. Tilloch.
rt
Sir, — own Correspondent C. (of Exeter) has solicited in-
formation relative to his proposed plan of constructing steam-
vessels to convey merchandise between Lendon and Exeter, with
so much candour and good sense, that | cannot refrain from of-
fering a few remarks on the subject to his consideration. —The
utility and advantage of employing steam-packets, on rivers, to
convey. passengers is now pyetty generally admitted; and not-
withstanding that some accidents have oceurred, their number is
increasing on all rivers suitable for them. ‘lhe speed and ex-
cellence of our coach continue however formidable rivals to them.
The conveyance of merchandise on rivers has latterly become an
object of interest. In Scotland one or two vessels are used for
that purpose. In America, where the rivers are deep, broad, and
navigable for several hundred miles, aud wood for fuel cheaply
procured, several steam-vessels of great dimensions, with powerful
engines aboard, are advantageously employed in conveying mer-
chandise as well as passengers.
Stimulated by the success attendant on these first eforts—the
Americans have even gone much further. Possessing a country
abounding in timber, they have constructed frigates and floating
batteries impelled by wheels worked by steam, These attempts
however have nut, nor cannot, succeed to any valuable extent, as
long as wheels are the medium of action on the water—because,
-as their action is necessarily limited aud superficial, they must
; move
28S On ihe intended Exeter Steam-Boat.
mové bodies deeply immersed to great disadvantage. A few
years ago a steam-packet, of which I was a part-owner, having
made a successful voyage by sea from Scotland to London, led
the way to similar attempts, and finally to the establishment of
the steam-packets to Margate. The above vessel plied some
time on the Thames, and subsequently passed over to the Seine.
I confess, however, that I am decidedly of opinion, that as long
as the common rotatory impellers are employed, such steam-
packets aré infinitely more unsafe aé sea than vessels impelled
by wind. As cuasters, less risk is of course incurred 3 because in
ease of accident, as steam- packets draw little water, they may,run
ashore with safety. Necessity has compelled many persons to .
make voyages by sea in open boats, and they have frequently
escaped ; but I believe few people would prefer from choice that’
mode of conveyance. Deceived by some exaggerated statements
and reports (and contrary to my opinion detailed at some length
in the newspapers of the day), a most respectable company in
Dublin undertook the conveyance of passengers by steam-packets
with wheels, between Holyhead and Dublin. The attempt, how-
ever praiseworthy, has not repaid the spirited proprietors the
many thousands they have expended therein.
The conveyance of merchandise by sea from Scotland to the
North of Ireland was attempted by steam-vessels worked by ors
dinary wheels :—but I presume a failure, as J do not hear of their
continuing to ply. If the secure conveyance of passengers by
s€a in steain-packets involves difficulties on the known plan, it
is clear that the safe conveyance of merchandise involves greater.
A knowledge of the difficulties to be surmounted is, however, a
great step towards finding the means of overcoming them.
At first eight-horse engines were employed in boats... Me-
chanics, accustomed to machinery acting on immoveable fulcrums,
and perhaps ignorant of the laws of fluids, imagined that they
had only to increase the power of their engines, and that thereby
the velocity of the vessel would be increased in proportions but
although thirty-six- and forty-horse engines are now in common
use, little comparative advantage has been derived therefrom ;
and wherever the power is expended in giving an undue velocity
to the impelling wheels, much water is lifted, and the speed of the
vessel is diminished. Jn short, the waste of power, owing to the
imperfect leverage on the water of the wheels in common use, is
enormous.—Still ov rivers (as nothing superior has appeared in
use) this imperfection, being resolvable into a mere question of
expense and convenience, forms no insurmountable bar to theif
beneficial employment. It should always be held in view, that
large engines are expensive, are weighty, occupy much valuable
room, and consume daily large quantities of fuel, oil, &e. mee
: the
On the intended Exeter Steam- Boat. 289
the immersion of the vessel, and require it to be built of strong
-and ponderous materials ; and after all, if a rope was attached to
the stem of the vessel, and a weight equal to one-eighth the full
power of the engine was fixed to the other end and passed over
a pulley, the vessel would be drawn faster through the water than
it could be impelled by the engine moving wheels ;—it therefore
is a great desideratum to obtain an action on the water at once
convenient in its application, and producing an effect equivalent
to the moving power, which under such circumstances might be
materially reduced.
- Aware of the danger, waste of power, and inefficiency of wheels
to move vessels deeply immersed aé sea, I devised.many sub-
stitutes for them; but what I give a preference to, is a subaquatic
lever, simple as the common oar; but which, owing to the
adoption of a novel principle in its construction, possesses far
greater power on the water; and which, when moved either up
and down or to and fro therein, will communicate an unceasing
forward motion to a body.
I conceive it superior to the-common oar: Ist, In power:
2diy, in being applicable with effect to the largest vessels aé
sea: 3dly, in not requiring to be feathered: 4thly, in’ not losing
time in rising out of the water. I conceive it superior to wheels
in simplicity, possessing a better and equally unceasing action on
the water, and far more convenient and secure in application,
while its power of leverage may be increased almost ad infini-
tum. Wheels cannot be multiplied or enlarged with corre-
sponding effect or convenience; but a simple reciprocating lever,
such as above described, may; because, like the feather in a wing,
it will prevent little surface in the line of motion. A body wholly
immersed in water is equally pressed and supported throughout,
and therefore is not so liable to be broken as a wheel posited in
air and water is. [I confess I have not as yet had an opportunity
of trying this new species of lever on a large scale, 1 therefore
naturally feel diffident in offering it to public notice: but I will
show a model of it at work to any scientific gentleman, and ex-
plain its peculiar properties and application to any person se-
riously inclined to adopt the use of it. Except in diminishing
the weight of the steam-engines used in vessels, and dismissing
the fly wheel, I know of no valuable improvement that has taken
place in steam-boats since they came intouse. ‘The cause | ap-
prehend is, the vast expense of experiments in this line, and the
very limited knowledge we possess of the laws and properties of
fluids. ‘The House of Commons (the safety-valves of the purse
of the nation) has humanely attempted to legislate for steam-
boats, but has offered no rewards for their improvement. Since
then, | have heard that the owners of a steam-packet on the
Vol, 50, No,234. Oct, 1817, T Thames
290 On the intended Exeter Steam- Boat:
Thames advertised perfect security to their passengers) under
the new law) 4n the morning, and kept their word by blowing up
in the evening, when ouly the crew were injured.
Your correspondent has fairly stated the advantages likely to
result from his plan of placing the wheels of his proposed steam-
vessel at the stern;—but practically I fear he will find it subject
so some disadvantages. In the first place, wheels placed at the
stern will not impel a vessel with equal effect with wheels placed
on each side. 2dly, Whenever the wind -is strong on either
bow the head of the vessel will not at times obey the helm, with
the due action of which wheels at the stern are likely to inter-
fere. 3dly, If the wind is strong and fair, the pitching of the
vesse] and the roll of the sea aft, will more seriously disturb the
action of the wheels than if they were placed at or near midships.
Presuming that it is intended to use the wheels in ordinary use,
it would be easy for me to prove the truth of the foregoing ob-
servation ;—but I wish to be brief, and avoid detail as much as
possible. My object is not to damp the spirit of enterprise, but.
to direct it as far as the case will admit into a safe and profit-
able channel; and if your correspondent is determined to follow
up his plan of using two wheels at the stern, I would beg leave
to recommend him a particular construction of wheels, which ?
invented and used many years ago, and which will materially
assist his purpose and obviate in a great degree the objections I
have started. The paddles of the wheels I allude to when at rest,
present their edges in a line with the keel of the vessel; of course
they expose little surface to the direct action of the wind or sea:
When made to revolve, a simple but efiectual contrivance obliges
each paddle as it successively enters the water to gradually pre-
seut its full surface thereto, and consequently to rise out of the
water on its edge; each paddle may therefore be considered a
vertical rotatory feathering oar, free from all shock in entering
the water, obtaining the full effect therefrom, and rising out
without any lift thereof. But as the degree of obliquity of each,
and every paddle, may be varied ina moment at pleasure; it fol-
lows, that a vessel may be both gmpelled and steered by such
wheels; and in place of the horizontal rudder, these rotatory
impelling rudders might be used with advantage in every steam-
boat, either as a substitute for, or in addition to, wheels placed
at the sides. When so posited, the general arbor, instead of
projecting as customary three or four feet on each side of the
vessel, need only project half that space; and as there is no lift
of water, no casing is necessaiy over them, the mechanism is
boxed in and secure from all external injury, is not liable to be
deranged, and works with very little friction. :
A little reflection will show that these rotatory rudders might
furnish
On the Cause of the Changes of Colour in Mineral Cameleon. 291
furnish the means of directing a steam-vessel to any given point,
even in opposition to a moderate wind and tide, without the aid
of a man aboard, for a limited time :—if therefore such a vessel had
been fitted up as a fire-ship, the Algerine navy might have been
destroyed without the loss of a man on our part.
On some future occasion I may, perhaps, send you some ob-
servations on the subject of towing vessels by means of steam-
boats; On the best forms to give steam-vessels intended for the
sea; On the utility of a change likewise in the form of sailing-
vessels ; On the practicability of employing steam as a moving
power aboard vessels without the possibility of an explosion:—but. -
for the present I feel I have already trespassed too much on
your valuable space ; and therefore remain
Yours, &c.
4, George’s Place, Dublin, JaMEs Dawson,
Sept. 14, 1817.
XLVIIL. On the Cause of the Changes of Colour in Mineral
Cameieon. By M.CuHEvrevc*.
en Siyce the time of the illustrious Scheele many important
facts have been added to the history of manganese; but no per-
son, tomy knowledge, has made any particular inquiry into the
cause of the changes of colour exhibited by mineral cameleon t.
I will endeavour in this note to deduce from observations of my,
own, an explanation which, if it is admitted, will be susceptible
of many new applications.
2. I must begin by stating the properties which Scheele has
recognised in mineral cameleon. 1. On the solution of came-
leon in water, a deposition of a fine yellow powder takes place,
and the liquor passes insensibly to a blue colour. Scheele be-
lieves that the yellow powder consists chiefly of the oxide of iron;
that the blue is the true colour of the cameleon, and is only
changed when iron is in conjunction, 2. Cameleon mixed in
water becomes decomposed; the mixture appears violet, then
red; and when the red particles combine, the red colour disap-
pears and the deposit of cameleon presents nothing more than
the natural colour of the oxide of manganese. 8. Lastly, the
same effect takes place when a few drops of acid are added to
the solution, or when it is exposed for some days to the open
air: in this last case the alkali unites itself to the carbonic acid
of the atmosphere. Let us now pass to the facts which I have
observed.
* From a work on Manganese, by M. Chevreul. , p
t The substance so called is a combination of potash with an oxide of
manganese,
T2 3. I
292 On the Cause of the Changes
3. I have prepared the cameleon of which I have made use,
by exposing in a crucible of platinum to the action of a red heat
for twenty minutes, a mixture of a gramme (about a scruple) of
oxide, red-brown, obtained by the calcination of the carbonate
of pure manganese with eight grammes of potash. The green
mass produced by this operation was twelve hours afterwards
immersed in water. Whatever was the proportion of water em-
ployed, there was always a large enough quantity of the oxide
which did not dissolve. I do not think that the whole of the
oxide has ever been separated by the action of the water; I be-
lieve that there is a portion of it, which, after being incorporated
with the alkali, separates itself from it upon the solidification of
the cameleon by cooling. ‘This last portion appears often under
the form of little brilliant spangles, similar to the sulphuret of
molybdenum.
4. When the cameleon dissolved in water passes to blue, it is
not by depositing from the oxide of iron yellow ; for cameleon
which has been prepared with the pure oxide of manga-
nese yields a similar deposit, and the liquid when perfectly
clear, being evaporated to dryness, leaves a residue, which takes,
when it is exposed to a red‘heat, a beautiful green colour, and
communicates the same to water when immersed init. Now, if
the colour of cameleon was naturally blue, it ought to be ob-
tained of that colour, upon dissolving with potash the oxide
which has been deprived of its pretended oxide of iron. Either
then the colour of cameleon is not blue, or the observation of
Scheele is not proved.
5. When cameleon passes more or less slowly from green to
red, it presents a series of colours in the order of the iris ; viz.
green, blue, violet, indigo, purple, red. Not only cold water,
but even carbonic acid, carbonate of potash, subcarbonate of
ammonia, and lastly hot water, when added to cameleon, pro-
duce these colours. It is observed that the latter even produce
them with more rapidity than cold water.
6. According as it appears to me, the green solution of came-
leon is the combination of caustic potash with the oxide of man-
ganese, and the solution which becomes red by carbonic acid
(of which alone I at present speak) is a triple combination of
potash, the oxide of manganese, and carbonic acid. It may be
also necessary to take account of the water which holds these.
combinations in solution; but the proportion of water does not
seem to me to have any sensible influence on their coloration ;
for if we saturate with carbonic gas, a green solution, formed of
one part of cameleon and ten parts of water, it will pass to red,
depositing at the same time a little of the oxide; then on putting
into this red liquor some dry caustic potash it resumes the green
colour ;
of Colour in Mineral Cameleon. 293
eolour;: and afterwards, on saturating the alkali added by the
carbonic gas, the red colour is reproduced, accompanied with a
deposition of a little of the oxide. In the last place, I have ob-
served that precipitating by the water of barytes a part of the
carbonic acid from a red solution of cameleon, changes it into
green cameleon*,
7. Cameleons which become blue, violet, indigo, and purple,
by the action of carbonic acid, appear to me to be mixtures of
green and red cameleon. In proportion, accordingly,as we add
more and more considerable quantities of green cameleon, we
obtain successively purple, indigo, violet, and blue liquids. It is
easy from this to conceive, how by adding at intervals to a green
eameleon some small quantities of earbonie acid or carbonate of
potash, blue, violet, indigo, and purple liquids will be obtained ;
and again, how the liquids may be obtained in the inverse series,
by adding, at intervals, to a red cameleon sinall quantities of
potash.
8. Let us now endeavour to prove by analysis the nature of
the intermediate cameleons between green and red. If we filter
some green cameleon a certain number of times upon a filtert of
sufficient size, the cameleon will be deeomposed into potash,
which will remain in the water, and into oxide of manganese of
a brownish yellow, which will attach itself to the slips of paper,
in virtue of an affinity analogous to that which occasions the
combination of cloths with the mordants employed in dyeing.
A similar decomposition will take place, if we introduce a piece
of paper into a solution of green cameleon, separated from all
contact with the air;—the reswits are the same with red cameleon.
The chemical action of paper on solutions of cameleon being
thus demonstrated, the possibility may be conceived of reducing
by filtration a liquor containing the two cameleons to a simple
solution of one of them, provided there exists always a difference
in the tendeney which the oxide of manganese of the green
combination and the carbonated combination have to unite
with the paper; and so in fact we find the case to-be: for if we
filter blue, violet, indigo, and purple eameleons, the red cameleon
is decomposed, while the green cameleon passes to the side of
the filter.
9. The preceding explanation is applicable to changes pro-
* It is not necessary to use as much of the barytes as will saturate all the
earbouic acid; for it would precipitate with it a rose-lilac combination of
the oxide of manganese and barytes. ‘Uhis combination, which is a species
of cameieon, may perhaps be spoiled by the submixture of acetic acid of
cartionate, which there is no doubt exists in compounds of this sort,
¥ Which ought to be washed with hydrochloric acid, to prevent any
foreign matters from attaching to 4 slips of paper,
7
duced
294 On the Cause of the Changes
duced by the subcarbonate of ammonia and the carbonate of
potash ;—but is it equally so to the changes produced by distilled
water? Ido not think it is, although indeed the purest water
which I have been able to obtain has always presented some
sensible quantity of carbonic acid, or of subcarbonate of ammo-
nia, Thus much I can affirm, that the intermediary cameleous
produced by water are invariably formed of green cameleon and
a red liquor; for all of them become green after being filtered, and
when potash is added are converted into green cameleons. What
proves, besides, that the carbonic acid has no influence on the
colour of the red liquor of these cameleons is, that water which
has been reduced by boiling to a fifth of its volume, and which
ought to contain less carbonic acid than cold water which has
not been boiled, being mixed when hot with green cameleon, red-
dens it much more “rapidly than cold water: and again, that
when a little more hydrate of barytes is added to boiling water
than is necessary to precipitate all the carbonic acid contained
in the water, if it is afterwards turned into green cameleon, it
will change to red, although the carhanic acid has been wholly
extracted. Is it not possible that this red colour may be the
result of an action of the potash upon the oxide less strong than
that exercised by the same alkali upon the oxide of green came-
Jeon? And is it not also possible, when carbonic acid is present,
that it may have the effect of weakening the action of the pot-
ash?
10. The oxide of green cameleon possesses without doubt the
same degree of oxidation as the oxide of red cameleon, and that
oxide contains more oxygen than that of salts of manganese un-
coloured; so that on heating hydrochloric acid with green or
red cameleon, the former disengages itself from the chlorine, and
the latter becomes discoloured. Scheele has before remarked,
that a great number of matters susceptible of absorbing oxygen
produce the same effect of discoloration as hydrochloric Abid
But it may be asked, Does the cameleon contain the natural oxide,
or the oxide which is produced by exposing the latter to the ac~
tion of fire? If we consider the ‘impossibility of uniting the first
to acids without subjecting it to a previous deoxidation; that ca-
meleon supersaturated with sulphuric, nitric, and other acids
forms red salts, in the same manner as the second of the oxides
referred to; and further, that carbonic acid reddens green came-
leon without producing any effervescence,—it would seem to fol-
low that the oxide of cameleon is less oxidated than the natural
oxide. I have made several experiments to ascertain the cor-
rectness Of this conclusion. I heated in a stone jar 25 grammes
of the oxide of native manganese with 200 grammes of potash
a Valcool;
of Colour in Mineral Cameleon. 295
a Valcool; 1 collected from the water a little azote, with car-
ponie and inflammable acid ; which last indicated that an alco-
holic matter remained with the alkali. The jar was speedily
penetrated by the potash. I repeated the same experiment with
potash @ Ja chaux. | did not obtain any inflammable gas ; but
the jar was penetrated as in the preceding experiment. The
vameleon of the first experiment was green; but when diluted
gn water it did not yield a permanently coloured dissolution.
The cameleon of the second experiment, being put into water,
did not disengage any remarkable quantity of oxygen; the liquor
which it yielded was of a permanent green ; heated by mercury
without the contact of the air, it became discoloured without
presenting any of the colours of the series; but when carbonic
acid was added it presented the whole series. In order to pre-
vent the corrosive action of the potash upon the jar, I made an-
‘other experiment, in which I heated 30 gr. of oxide with 270 gr.
of carbonate of potash which had been reduced in a great mea~
sure by the heat into subcarbonate. The jar was not in this
instance affected, and the result J obtained was a mixture of
about two volumes of carbonic acid and one of oxygen. The
cameleon produced was of a greenish blue ; put into water, it
precipitated a good deal of the oxide, of which part was mica-
_ceous and part was dissolved, and imparted a green colour to
the water; but this solution lost its colour so quickly, and was
besides so slightly charged with oxide, in comparison to the
quantity which had been heated, that 1 do not regard this ex-
periment as absolutely conclusive of the supposition, that the
native oxide of manganese loses oxygen on uniting itself to pot-
ash—though it certainly renders it very probable.
11. If the explanation which we have given of the colours of
cameleon is exact, is it not probable that some minerals may be
enamelled with blue, with violet, and with purple, by green and
red combinations of manganese? Is it not probable that the
alkaline substances, earthy or vitreous, which become tinged
with red by the oxide of manganese, exercise upon ii; the same
action as the acids? And may not a combination of this sort
along with a green alkaline vombination of the same oxide, foria
mixtures of colours analogous to blue, violet, indigo, and purple
cameleons? In short, does there not seem some analogy as to
chemical action between the oxide of manganese and certain ve-
getable colouring principles, which become green by the alkalies,
and red by the acids?
T4 XLIX, On
[ 296 J
-XLIX.: On an apparently new Species of Wren, discovered at
Tunbridge Wells, by Tuomas Forster, Esq. F.L.S.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir, — I BEG leave to communicate the discovery of what seems
to me to be a new species of wren, which I have of late seen in
the neighbourhood of Tunbridge Wells. I saw it in the-month
of September and early in the present month, among the trees,
particularly the firs, pines, and willows. It was about four inches
and a quarter Jong, and bore the nearest resemblance in form to
the smallest willow wren, Sylvia Hippolais of Latham and
E.Forster’s catalogue. But it differed in colour: the upper parts
of the whole body, head, wings, and tail being of a pure dark
brown: the under parts silvery white. This may possibly be
only a variety of the Sylvia Hippolais, as birds of this kind vary
extremely; but if it be a distinct species, both its form and man-
ners place it among the Sylvie: and I should propose to call it
Sylvia brunnea. It nearly answers to the. description of a
bird which Dr. Leach (of the British Museum) calls Curruca,
of which he has spoken to me as being a new wren.
We have all the three known species of willow wren at Tun-
bridge Wells; and I have observed a considerable variation of
the plumage in all of them, which has, no doubt, been in part
the cause of the great confusion found in the descriptions of birds
of this genus among naturalists. I proceed to enumerate some
of the most common varieties I have noticed.
Sylvia Sylvicola; or the largest willow wren. This, which
somewhat exceeds the common willow wren in size, is found with
the following varieties :
a. With the upper parts greyish; the under parts almost white.
8. The upper parts yellowish, green mixed with dusky ; and
the under parts yellow, more or less deep.
vy. Almost yellow like a Canary-bird, there being only a few
dusky specks on the wings, and dusky quills. I have seen this
variety in the garden of Mrs. Forster, of Walthamstow, on the
spruce fir-tree.
Syluia Trochilus, the middle willow wren, varies as fol-
lows : ;
a. Greenish ash-colour above, and white with a tinge of yel-
low beneath.
8. Greenish olive, mixed with yellow above, and deep yellow
on all the under parts. This seems to be the first-year’s bird ;
and the plumage changes afterwards.
Sylvia Hippolais, the least willow wren. This varies only in
the
Notices respecting New Books. 297
the lighter or darker shades of its plumage, and has less yellow in
it than any other species. I have purposely given only the osten-
sible varieties of these birds, which may be seen when the bird
is on the trees.—The new wren may perhaps become the subject
of future observations of a more detailed and accurate nature.
I am, &c.
Walthamstow, Oct. 16, 1817. THoMAs ForsTER,
L. Notices respecting New Books.
An Experimental Inquiry into the Laws of the Vital Functions ;
with some Observations on the Nature and Treatment of In-
ternal Diseases. By A. P, Witson Puiuip, M.D. F.R.S.E.
[Continued from p. 228.]
Tae spasmodic asthma is fortunately a very rare disease ; so
much so, that but one case of it has occurred to me since I have
employed galvanism in asthma, while I have had an opportunity
of employing this remedy in about forty cases of the habitual
form of the disease. I cannot therefore, from experience, speak
with certainty of the effect of galvanism in the former. In the
above case it was twice employed in the paroxysm, and I could
observe no relief from it. In both instances the patient said
that, had it not been used, the symptoms would have been more
severe. In this patient, the spasmodic paroxysm was often suc-
ceeded by a state of habitual asthma for several weeks, in which
galvanism gave immediate, but temporary relief.
“© Of the above cases of habitual asthma, many occurred in
work-people of the town where I reside, who had heen obliged
to abandon their employments in consequence of it, and some
of them, from its long continuance, without any hope of return-
ing to regular work. Most of them had tried the usual means
in vain. By the use of galvanism they were relieved in different
degrees, but all sufficiently to be restored to their employments.
I have seen several of them lately, who, although they have not
used the galvanism for some months, said they had continued to
work without any inconvenience. Some, in whom the disease
had been wholly removed, remain quite free from it ; some have
had a return of it, and have derived the same advantage from
the galvanism as at first.
“ { have confined the application of galvanism to asthmatic
dyspnoea. I think there is reason to believe, from the experi-
ments which have been laid before the reader, that in inflamma-
tory cases it would be injurious, and, in cases arising from dropsy,
or
298 Notices respecting New Books,
or any other mechanical impediment, little or nothing, it is
evident, is to be expected from it. Habitual asthma is. often
attended with a languid state of the biliary system, and: some
fullness and tenderness on pressure near the pit of the stomach.
if the last is considerable, it must be relieved previous to the
use of the galvanism, Ina paper which the Medico-Chirurgical
Society did me the honour to publish in the seventh volume or
their Transactions, I have endeavoured to show that a species
of pulmonary consumption arises from a disease of the digestive
organs. Many of the observations there made apply to certain
cases of asthma* ; I believe to cases of every species of this dis-
ease, but particularly of that we are here considering. Many
cases of habitual asthma will yield to the means recommended
in the above paper; but I have learned, from a pretty extensive
experience, that a large majority of such cases will resist them,
yet readily admit of relief from galvanism. If there is little ten-
dency to inflammation, galvanism seems also to be a means of
relieving the affection of the digestive organs. I have repeatedly
seen from it the same effect on the biliary system which arises
from calomel ; a copious bilious discharge from the bowels com-
ing on within a few hours after its employment. This seldom
happeus except where there appears to have been a failure in
the secreting power of the liver, or a defective action in the gall
tubes.
** T have not found that the presence even of a severe cough,
which is common in habitual asthma, in which there is always
more or less cough, counter-indicates the use of galvanism. The
cough under its use generally becomes less frequent in proportion
as the accumulation of phlegm in the lungs is prevented ; but it
seems to have no direct effect in allaying it. In some cases the
cough continued troublesome after the dyspnoea had disappeared.
Galvanism never appeared to increase it, except when the in-
flammatory diathesis was considerable. In some labouring un-
der the most chronic forms of phthisis, in whom the symptoms
had lasted several years and habitual asthma had supervened,
the relief obtained from galvanism was very great, notwith-
standing some admixture of a pus-like substance in what was
expectorated. I need hardly add, after what has been said, that
in ordinary cases of phthisis nothing could be more improper "than
the use of galvanism, The dyspnoea arising from phthisis and
that from habitual asthma are easily distinguished. |The former
is less variable. It is generally increased by the exacerbations
of the fever, and always by exercise. When the patient is still.
and cool, except in the last stages of phthisis, his breathing is
* See the observations on the state of these organs in asthma, in Dr.
Bree’ s work on this disease,
generally
Notices respecting New Books. 299.
eénerally pretty easy. The latter is worst at particular times of
the day, and frequently becomes better and worse without any
evident cause. At the times when it is better the patient can
often use exercise without materially increasing it. Changes
of the weather influence it much. It is particularly apt to be
increased by close and foggy weather. Phthisical dyspnoea is
seldom much influenced by changes of the weather, except they
increase the inflammatory tendency.
« When there is a considerable tendency to inflammation in
habitual asthma, the repeated application of galvanism some-
times increases it so much, that the use of, this influence no
longer gives relief, till the inflammatory tendency is subdued by
local blood-letting. It always gave relief most readily, and the
relief was generally most permanent in those cases which were
least complicated with other diseases, the chief complaint being
a sense of tightness across the region of the stomach, impeding
the breathing. The patients said, that the sense of tightness
gradually abated while they were under the influence of the gal-
vanism, and that as this happened their breathing became free.
The abatement of the tightness was often attended with a sense
of warmth in the stomach, which seemed to come in its place.
This sensation was most frequently felt when the negative wire
was applied near the pit of the stomach, but the relief did not
seem less when it was not felt.
“‘ With respect to the continuance of the relief obtained by
galvanism, it was different in different cases ; in the most severe
cases it did not last so long as in those where the symptoms were
slightér, thongh cf equal coutinuance. This observation, how-
ever, did not universally apply. When the patient was gal-
vanised in the morning, he generally felt its good effects more or
Jess till next morning. In almost all, the repetition of the gal-
vanism gradually increased the degree of permanent relief. Its
increase was much more rapid in some cases than in others. The.
permanency of the good effects of galvanism in the disease be-
fore us, has appeared very remarkably in several cases where the
symptoms, after having been removed by it, were renewed alter
intervals of different duration Ly cold or other causes. In these
eases means which, previous to the use of galvanism, bad failed
to give relief, were now successful without its aid; or with few
applications of it, compared with those which had becn neces-
sary in the first instance. 1 have not yet seen any case, in which
galvanism had been of considerable advantage, where its good
effects appeared to have been wholly lost. It is now about a
year and a half since I first employed it in habitual asthma.
‘Taking cold and the excessive use of fermented liquors have been
the principal causes of relapse,
« The
300 Notices respecting New Books.
«¢ The galvanism was seldom used more than onee aday. In
some of the more severe cases it was used morning and evening.
About a sixth part of those who have used it appear, as far as
we yet know, to have obtained a radical cure. It in no case
failed to give more or less relief, provided there was little inflam-
matory tendency. It failed to give considerable relief only in
about one-tenth; I may add, that were it only the means of
present relief, we have reason to believe that, as being more in-
nocent, it would be found preferable to the heating, spirituous,
and soporific, medicines, which are so constantly employed in
this disease.
« As it often happened that a very small Galvanic power, that
of not more than from four to six four-inch double plates, re-
lieved the dyspnoea, may we not hope, that a Galvanic apparatus
may be constructed, which can be worn by the patient, of suffi-
cient power to prevent its recurrence in some of the cases in
which the occasional use of the remedy does not produce a ra-~
dical cure ?
‘© | wished to try if the impression on the mind, in the em-
ployment of galvanism, has any share in the relief obtained from
it. 1 had not at this time seen its effects in apoplexy. I found
that by scratching the skin with the sharp end of a wire, I could
produce a sensation so similar to that excited by galvanism, that
those who had most frequently been subjected to this influence
were deceived by it. By this method, and arranging the trough,
pieces of metal, &c. as usual, I deceived several who had formerly
received relief from galvanism, and also several who had not
yet used it. All of them said that they experienced ne relief
from what I did. Without allowing them to rise, I substituted
for this process the real applieation of galvanism, merely by im~-
mersing in the trough one end of the wire with which I had
scratched the nape of the neck, the wire at the pit of the stomach
having been all the time applied as usual by the patients them-
selves. Before the application of the galvanism had been con-
tinued as long as the previous process, they all said they were
relieved. I relate the particulars of the two following experi-
ments, because, independently of the prineipal object in view in
making them, they point ont two circumstances of importance
in judging of the modus operand: of galvanism in asthmatie
cases.
« The first was made on an unusually intelligent lady, of about
thirty-five years of age, who had for many years laboured under
habitual asthma, than whom J have known none more capable
of giving a distinct account of their feelings. Her breathing was
very much oppressed at the time that she first used galvanism.
The immediate effect was, that she breathed with ease. She
' said
Notices respecting New Books. 801
said she had not breathed so well for :aany vears. Part of the
relief she obtained proved permanent, and when she was gal-
vanised once a day for about ten minutes, she suffered little
dyspnoea at any time. After she had been ‘galv anised fer eight
or ten days, 1 deceived her in the manner just mentioned. The
deception was complete. She told me to increase or lessen the
force of the galvanisin, as she was accustomed to do, according
to the sensation it produced. I obeyed her diiections by in-
creasing or lessening the force with which I scratched the neck
with the wire.. After I had done this for five minutes, she said
the galvanism did not relieve her as usual, and that she felt the
state of her breathing the same as when the operation was be-
guu. I then allowed the galvauism to pass through the chest,
but only through the upper part of it, the wire in front being
applied about the middle of the sternum. She soon said that
she felt a little relief; but although it was continued in this way
for ten minutes, the relief was imperfect. I then directed her
to apply the wire in front to the pit of the stomach, so that the
galvanism passed through the whole extent of the chest, and ina
minute and a half she said her breathing was easy, and that she
now experienced the whole of the effect of the former applica-
tions of the remedy.
_ © To try how far the effect of galvauism in asthma arises
merely from its stimulating the spinal marrow, in a young wo-
man who had been several times galvanised in the usual way,
the wires were applied to the nape of the neck and small of the
back,_and thus the galvanic influence was sent along the spine for '
nearly a quarter of an hour. She said her breathing was easier,
but uot so much so as on the former applications of the gal-
yanism ; and on attempting to walk up stairs she began to pant,
and found her breathing, when she had gone about half way, as
difficult as before the galvanism was applied. She was then
galvanised in the usual way for five minutes: she now said her
breathing was quite easy, and she walked up the whole of the
stairs without bringing on any degree of panting, or feeling any
dyspnoea. The above experiment was made in the presence of
four medical gentlemen. This patient, after remaining free from
her disease about half a year, returned to the Infirmary, labour-
ing under a slighter degree of it, and experienced immediate re=
lief from galvanism. The disease seemed to have been renewed
by cold, which had at the same time produced other complaints.
This is one of the cases above alluded to in speaking of the per-
manency of the good effects of galvanism. Ou the return of
this patient to the Infirmary, two or three applications of gal-
vanism, combined with means which had given no permanent
rclief to the dyspnoea previous to her first using galvanism, now
800]
302 Notices respecting New Books.
soon removed it. When'she first used galvanism, it ‘required its
eonstant employment once or twice a-day for several weeks to
produce the same effect. There is reason to believe she will re-
main well if she can avoid taking severe colds.
<¢ Many medical gentlemen have frequently witnessed the re-
lief afforded by galvanism in habitual asthma, and Mr. Cole, the
house-surgeon of the Worcester Infirmary, authorises me to say,
that no other means there employed have been equally efficacious
in relieving this disease.
“‘ Observations similar to the foregoing, there is reason to be-
Heve, will be found to apply to dyspepsia; but as I have ers
but few trials of galvanism in this disease, except where it wa
complicated with asthma, the removal of which no doubt con-
tributed to a more healthy action of the digestive organs, I can-
not yet speak with certainty of its effects in this disease. In
some, galvanism, at the time of its application, occasions a ten-
dency to sighing; and in some, in whom it removed the dys-
pnoea, it seemed to occasion a sense of sinking referred to the pit
of the stomach. This occurred in several instances, and was re-
Heved by small doses of carbonate of iron and bitters.
¢ That I may convey to the reader as correct an idea as I can
ef the effects of galvanism in habitual asthma, I shall concisely
relate the particulars of a few of the most, and of the least, sue-
cessful cases, in which it was employed.
«* Richard Morgan, a blacksmith, at. 50, had laboured under
severe habitual asthma for seven months, during which he had
been better and worse for a few weeks, but never free from dys-
pnoea. He was much troubled with a cough, the expectorated
matter being thick, and of a yellowish colour. The dyspnoea was
particularly severe at the time he was galvanised, and had been
so for about a fortnight. The first application of the galvanism
relieved him. He was galvanised only for three days, about ten
rainutes each day, before he declared himself to be perfectly well.
He returned to‘his work, which he had been obliged to aban-
don, after the second application of the galvanism. After its
third application he performed as hard werk, and with as much
ease, as he had ever done.
He remained free fram dyspnoea till it was renewed, several
weeks afterwards, by his getting drunk. Galvanism relieved him
as readily and effectually as at first. It is now ten months since
he first used this remedy, during which he has had several re-
turns of dyspneea, but it has never “been so severe as before he was
galvanised ; and when it has been such as to induce him to have
recourse to galvanism, he has always experienced from it imme-
diate relief. He aseribes the returns of his disease to his being
exposed to severe and sudden heats and chills.
“ Mary
Notices respecting New Books. 303
* Mary M‘Konehy, zt. 28, a gloveress, had been afflicted with
habitual asthma for four years, and under my care about one
year, during which she had tried all the usual means with very
imperfect relief, she had some languor in the biliary system, but
little inflammatory tendency. The breathing was, in a few mi-
nutes, rendered easy by galvanism, and after the second applica-
tion of it, it remained so. She now experienced no inconve-
nience from exercise, which had not at any time been the case
for four years.
“ In about three weeks after she had been galvanised she ex-
perienced some return of the dyspnoea. It was wholly removed
by a blister, which had often been tried, previous to her being
galvanised, with but little and very temporary relief. She com-
plained of a sense of sinking at the stomach for some time after
the use of the galvanism, which was removed by carbonate of
iron and bitters. This effect of galvanism seemed often to he
most felt when it gave most relief to the dyspnoea, seeming to
come in place of the latter, J have hitherto found it easily re-
moved by the above means. It is now many months since this
patient was galvanised, and she remains well.
** Hannah Cooke, zt. 20, a servant, had laboured under ha-
bitual asthma for two months, and tried various medicines with-
out relief. She was in a few minutes relieved by galvanism, and
after three applications of it remained quite well. It is now five
or six weeks Since she was galvanised.
“< | could mention several other ‘cases, in which I witnessed
the same sudden and permanent relief from galvanism, as in
those here related.
“« Isaac Radley, zt. 68, a labourer, formerly a soldier, had
been ill fourteen years. His asthma was caused by sleeping iu
camp in Holland. He had never been able, during the above
time, to walk at the usual pace without bringing on the dyspnea,
although he had sometimes been pretty free from it when he
was still; at other times he had been constantly oppressed with
it, and obliged wholly to abandon his work. At the time he
used the galvanism, he was affected with the most severe dys-
pneea, which only allowed him to move, and that with difficulty,
at the slowest pace; he had been in this state for half a year.
This was the longest and most severe fit he had ever had. He
was relieved in a few minutes by the application of galvanism.
He could perceive its beneficial effects for twenty-four hours af-
ter its application. It was used daily with the same immediate
relief. {ts permanent good effects gradually increased, and after
he had been galvanised for about ten minutes each day, for be-
tween two and three weeks, his breathing remained quite easy,
He could now not only walk, but, as I several times witnessed,
run
/
304 _ Notices respecting New Books.
run without any dyspnoea. He complained of the sense’ of
sinking at the pit of the stomach after the dyspnoea had left him,
which, as in the case just mentioned, was readily removed by
the carbonate of iron and bitters. He now said his digestiou
was much better than it had been previously to the use of the
galvanism. Those whose breathing had been much relieved by
galvanism, often made this observation, although they had not
experienced the sense of sinking, and consequently had used no
stomachic medicines.
‘¢ I saw this man, several months after he had ceased to use
galvanism, working as a brick-layer’s labourer, He said he had
no feeling of dyspnoea, and had been quite free from it since he
had used the galvanism.
** In general, where galvanism gave such complete and per-
manent relief, as in Radley’s case, its effects were more speedy,
some degree ‘of dyspnoea for the most part remaiuing in pro-
tracted cases,
“* The following are the most unsuccessful vases, which either
Mr. Cole or I could recollect.
“‘ Martha Davies, a servant, et. 40, had laboured under ha-
bicual asthma for five years. She was relieved on the first appli-
cation of galvanism, and said her breathing was quite easy; but
she was not always equally relieved by it, sometimes it gave
comparatively little relief. The more permanent relief afforded,
was also different at different times, never complete. She was
galvanised for about three weeks, but not daily, her business pre-
venting her regular attendance ; she used the remedy in all about
thirteen or fourteen times. It was impossible to ites her
drinking a great deal too much malt liquor.
** It is now about half a year since she was galvanised, during
which she says both her breathing aud digestion have been bet-
ter than for the pr eceding five years. She thinks the digestion
as much improved as the breathing. She has had no very bad
attacks of dyspnoea, and has been much less subject to bilious
attacks. She is now oceasionally so well that she ean run with-
out inconvenience, which she could never do during the above
time, but, in general, her breathing, though in a less degree
than formerly, is still oppressed.
«¢ Mary Clark, a servant, et. 24, had laboured under habitual
asthma for aboutea year. The dyspnoea was always quickly re-
lieved by the galvanism, although she seemed to experience lit- *
tle, if any, permanent relief from it. She had more pain in the
stomach than is usual in such cases, and the galvanism seemed
to inerease it. She was cured by an alterative course of medi-
cines and evacuations from the region of the stomach, and did
uot use galyanism for the last fortnight, She had used e at
' Trst
Notices respecting New Books. 305
first daily for a fortnight, and twice: afterwards for a week each
time. t s
“‘ As far as I can judge from having observed the course of
many cases ‘of this kind, her recovery would neither have been
so speedy nor complete if she had not used galvanism.
‘© Rachel Hooper, zt. 29, a servant, had laboured under se-
vere habitual asthma for about a year, with considerable inflam-
matory tendency. Her breathing was relieved in a few minutes
by galvanism, but not completely. For about eight or ten days,
during which she was galvanised daily for about ten minutes,
she derived from it considerable relief, both immediate and per-
manent. It then began to fail to give relief, and in a few days
gave none. The epigastric region was now very tender on pres-
sure. This symptom was relieved in the space of a few days by
local blood-letting, blistering, and small does of calomel. The
relief afforded by the galvanism was now greater than at first,
which seemed to arise from the disease not being so severe as
on the first use of the remedy, for some part of the good effects
of the galvanism had remained. After this she was always re-
lieved by it as long as she continued to use it, which was for se-
veral weeks. The permanent relief she experienced from it was
also great, although she still at times laboured under a consider-
able degree of dyspnoea. About half a year ago, she left Wor-
cester with a promise to return, if she should get worse. I have
heard nothing of her since.
“* She said nothing else had giyen her so much, either imme-
diate or permanent relief, as the galvanism had done. She had
been for several months in the Infirmary under other plans of
treatment before she used the galvanism. All the patients whose
cases I have mentioned were'galvanised at the Infirmary.
. © The followiug is a remarkable instance of permanent, though
imperfect relief from galvanism, in the disease before us, A
woman who had for many years laboured under severe habitual
asthma was incautiously galvanised with such a power as occa-
-sioned severe pain. No entreaty could induce her to submit to
a repetition of the galvanism, although it had immediately re-
lieved her breathing. ‘The dyspnoea svon recurred, but she told
me many months afterwards that it had never been so severe
since she was galvanised, and that she had ever since been able
to carry water in buckets from the river, which the state of her
breathing had not for a long time previously allowed her to do.
_.© If the reader will compare these cases with the general ob-
servations which [ have had occasion to make on the effects of
galvanism in habitual asthma, he will be enabled to form a pretty
correct estimate of what he may expect from it in this disease.
“* When we compare them with the experiments laid before
the reader in the preceding Inquiry, the question naturally arises,
Val. 50. No. 234, Oct, 1817. U Whence
306 Notices respecting New Books.
Whence proceeds the permanent relief obtained in them? The
galvanic experiments lead us to expect relief to the dyspnoea
while the stream of gaivanism passes through the lungs; but on
what principle shall we explain the permanency of the relief af-
forded? ‘The following observations appear to throw some light
on this subject. There are two ways in which av organ may be
deprived of its nervous influence, either by a failure of due action
in the brain and spinal marrow, the sources of nervous influence,
or a failure of due action in the nerves of the organ affected by
which this influence is conveyed.: It is no longer conveyed by a
nerve which has been divided, or around which a ligature has
been thrown. Now we have reason to believe that habitual
asthma arises not so much from a fault in the brain and spinal
matrow, as in the nerves of the lungs ; because, did the degree
of dyspnoea, which we often witness in this disease, arise from
failure in the general source of nervous influence, this failure
must be sufficient to appear in the derangement of ail the nervous
functions ; whereas in habitual asthma, we often find the fune-
tion of the lungs alone affected; and when general failure of
nervous influence is observed, it is evidently the effect of im-
peded respiration, appearing only after the latter has continued
for some time, and varying as it varies. The effect produced by
galvanism, when it performs a cure in habitual asthma, therefore,
does not appear to be its having occasioned a permanent supply
of nervous influence, but its having cleared, if | may use the ex-
pression, the passage of this influence to the lungs. It is not
difficult to conceive that such an obstruction may exist in the
nerves as cannot be overcome by the usual supply of nervous in-
fluence, though it may yield to a greatly increased supply of it ;
and that it may in some cases continually recur in an equal or
diminished. degree, while in others, being once removed, the ten-
dency to it may cease *,
‘* The foregoing observations seem to explain why other means
which give a temporary vigour to the nervous system, often, for
the time, relieve habituai asthma; and sometimes, though rarely,
cure this disease, ‘The relief obtained from such means being in
general so much less than that obtained from galvanism, I would
ascribe to the former oceasioning but little additional supply of
nervous influence, while by the latter we can make the additional
supply as great as we please.”
'* «© What is here said is well illustrated by the effects of valvanism in
apoplexy. Weé know that in this disease the dyspnoea arises from a failure
in the source of nervous influence, and the relief obtamed from galvanism
corresponds with the views afforded by the experiments which have been
laid before the reader. While the galvanism passed through the lungs the
dyspnoea was as much relieved as in habitual asthma, but when it ceased
to pass through them, the relief lasted no longer than was necessary for the
reaccumulation of the phlegm,”
Early
Triumph of Science. 307
Early in November will be published, by Thomas Jones, opti-
cian, No. 62, Charing Cross, The late Mr. Ferguson’s Astro-
nomical Planisphere, showing the day of the month, change and
age of the moon, the places of the sun and moon, and stars of
the first, second and third magnitude. Likewise his Astronomi-
cal Rotula, showing the change and age of the moon, the motion
of the sun, moon, and nodes, with all the solar and lunar eclipses
from the year 1817 to 1864, with descriptions of their uses.—
The calculations continued by the Rev. Mr. L. Evans, of the
Roy. Mil. Acad.
The price of the Planisphere, consisting of three plates with
a circular motion, on pasteboard will ke eight shillings; and in
hoards about thirteen inches square, as a book ten shillings. The
Rotula consisting of five plates, eight shillings plain, and ten
shillings in boards. The same size as the Planisphere,
Mr. Thomas Forster has just published ‘Observations on the
Phenomenaand Treatment of Insanity,&c.”’ being supplementary
to his Observations on periodical Diseases and on the Periods of
Insanity.
The manuscripts of the late Mr. Spence of Greenock were
some time ago submitted to Mr. Herschel, who has selected the
most complete for publication. It wili gratify the students of
pure mathematics to understand, that the volume now preparing,
and which will be published in the course of the spring by Messrs.
T. and G.Underwood, contains, besides the ingenious Essay on Lo-~
garithmic Transcendents, unpublished tracts in the same class of
the science, equally new and elegant. A biographical sketch of
the author by his friend Mr, Galt will be prefixed to the volume,
—
LI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.
. TRIUMPH OF SCIENCE.
Tur subjoined decided and honourable testimony given to the
originality and utility of Sir Humphry Dayy’s discovery of the
safety-lamp for miners, deserves to have a more durable record
than the ephemeral columns of a newspaper, and wur readers, we
are sure, will therefore thank us for giving it a place in our pages,
The coal-owners of the rivers Tyne and Wear, the body
most extensively benefited by*Sir Humphry Davy’s safety-lamps
for preventing explosions in coal-mines, }iave shown their sense
of the importance of the discovery to their interests, and those
of humanity, by presenting Sir Humphry with a very handsome
service of plate, of the value of nearly two thousand pounds.
The ceremony of the presentation of it took place on Saturday,
October the llth, when a ik hail was given to Sir Bae ry
y
308 Triumph of Science.
by the Coal Proprietors and Owners at the Queen’s Head at New-
castle, where tlie plate was exposed for public inspéction, and the
designs, taste, and execution, equally admired. J.G. Lambton,
esq. M.P. for the county of Durham, was in the chair. There
were present: The Mayor, Sheriff, and Town Clerk of New-
castle; the Rev. Dr. Gray; J. Collinson, and J. Hodgson ;
Messrs. Warren, Lamb, Baker, Lorraine, Buddle, Ellison, Botts,
Brown, Mowbray, Robinson, and about fifty other gentlemen.
After the King and the Prince Regent, the Queen and Royal
Family, had been drank, Mr. Lambton rose, and presented the
service of plate to Sir Humphry Davy, and addressed him nearly
in these,terms, with great strength of feeling :
Sir Humphry—It is now my duty to fulfil the object of this
meeting, in presenting to you this service of plate, from the coal-
owners of the Tyne and Wear, as a testimony of their gratitude
for the services you have rendered to them and to humanity.
Your brilliant genius, which has been so long employed in ex-
tending, in an unparalleled manner, the boundaries of chemical
knowledge, never accomplished a better object, nor obtained a
nobler triumph. You had to contend with an element of de-
struction, which seemed uncontrollable by human power, which
not only rendered the property of the coal-owner insecure, but
kept him in perpetual alarm with respect to the safety of the
miner, and often exhibited to him scenes of death and heart-
rending misery. You have increased the value of an important
branch of productive industry; and, what is of infinitely greater
importance, you have contributed to the preservation of the lives
and persons of multitudes of your fellow-creatures. It is now
nearly two years that your safety-lamp has been used by hun-
dreds of miners, inthe most dangerous situations, and under the
most trying circumstances, Not a single failure has occurred ;
its absolute security is demonstrated. I have, indeed, deeply to
lament more than one catastrophe produced by fool-hardiness
and ignorance in neglecting to use it, but even these dreadful ac-
cidents, if possible, exalt its importance. If your fame had
needed any thing to make it immortal, this discovery alone would
have carried it down to future ages, connected with benefits and
blessings. Receive, Sir Humphry, this permanent memorial of
our profound respect and high admiration—a testimony, we trust,
equally honourable to you and to us. We hope you will have as
much pleasure in receiving, as we have in offering it; long may
you liye to use it; long may you live to pursue your splendid
career of scientific discovery, and to give new claims to the gra-
titude and praise of the world!” .
Sir Humphry Davy having received the plate, spoke nearly in
the following words:
** Gentlemen—lI find it impossible to reply in an appropriate
manner
Triumph of Sciences . 809
manner to the very eloquent and flattering address of your distin-
guished chairman. Eloquence, or even accuracy of language, is
incompatible with strong feeling, and, on an occasion like the
present, you will give me credit for no small dégree of emotion.
“¢ [ have been informed, that my labours have been tiseful to
an important branch of human industry, connected with our arts,
our manufactures, commerce, and national wealth. To learn
this from such practical authority, is a high gratification to a
person whose ardent desire has always been to apply science to
purposes of utility. It has also been stated that the invention,
which you are this day so highly honouring, has been subservient
to the preservation of the lives and persons of a most useful and .
laborious class of men: this coming from-your own knowledge,
founded upon such ample experience, affords me a pleasure still
more exalted—for the highest ambition of my life has been to
deserve the name of a friend to humanity. To crown all, you
have as it were embodied these sentiments in a permanent and
magnificent memorial of your good opinion, [can make only
imperfect and inadequate efforts to thank you. Under all cir-
cumstances of my future life, the recollection of this day will °
warm my heart; and this noble expression of your kindness wil’.
awaken my gratitude to the last moment of my existence.” _
Mr. Lambton’s speech, and Sir Humphry’s reply, were re-
ceived with loud acclamations; as was likewise Sir Humphry
Davy’s health, which Mr. Lambton gave with three times three,
and introduced in another eloquent speech, still further extolling
the merits of the lamp, and the disinterested manner in which
it had been presented to the public.
Sir H. Davy, in reply, said, that he was overpowered by gra-
titude, by these reiterated proofs of their approbation—that his
merits were far overrated—that his success in their cause was
owing to his following the path of experiment, discovered by
philosophers who had preceded him—that he would piney
divide their plaudits with other men of science, and claim muc
- for the general glory of scientific discovery in a long course of
ages. He referred to the great increase of wealth and power to
the country, within the last fifty years, by scientific inventions,
which could not have existed without coal-mines ;_ the improve-
ment in the potteries, the steam-engine, and the discovery of
gas lights. In referring to the steam-engine, he said,‘* What an
immense impulse has this machine given to arts and manufac-
tures! how much has it diminished labour, and increased the
real strength of the country, far beyond a mere increase of popu-
lation! By giving facilities to a number of other inventions, it
had even a moral effect in rendering capital necessary for the
perfection of labour, credit essential to capital, and ingenuity
and mental energy a secure and dignified species of property.
Science
310° Triumph of Science.
Science was of infinitely more importance than could at first view
be supposed to the state, for no source of wealth or power was
entirely independent of it: and no class of men were so well able
to appreciate its advantages as the gentlemen whom he had the
honour of addressing; for they not only derived from it the means
of raising their subterraneous wealth, but likewise those of ren-
dering it useful to the public. Jn various manner it was science
that had made pit-coal such an instrument in the hands of the
chemist and mechanic, so as to make the elements fire and water
perform operations which formerly demanded human labour; and
to convert the productions of the earth into a thousand new
forms of beauty and use. Sir H. Davy said, that it was in pur-
suing those methods of analogy and experiment by which the
mystery had become a science, ‘that he had discovered the safety-
lamp—that he had registered the whole progress of his researches
in the Transactions of the Royal Society, in papers which that
illustrious body had honoured by their biennial medal, and that
in those papers he had acknowledged the slightest hints, or of-
fers of assistance, that he had received, —He stated this, not
from vain glory, but on account of certain calumnious insinua-
tions which had arisen, not in the scientific world, for to that
the whole progress of his scientific researches was well known,
but in a colliery. He must ever treat these insinuations with
contempt; and, after the indignation which had been expressed
against them by the coal-owners in general, he could not have
any anxiety on the subject, nor should he have referred to it at all,
but that he had every reason to believe that the persons amongst
whom these insinuations originated were extensively benefited
by, and were constantly using, his invention. And that it was
far from his expectation that such persons would have employed
their respectable connexions in mean attempts to impeach the
originality of a discovery which was given to them in a disinter-
ested manner, and for which no return was required, but an
honest acknowledgement of the benefit, founded upon truth and
justice. “I (said Sir H. D.) do not envy them their feelings,
particularly at the present moment. I do not wish to inquire
into their motives ; I hope, however, that their conduct has been
prompted by ignorance rather than malevolence, by misappre-
hension rather than ingratitude. It was a new circumstance to
me, that attempts to preserve human life, and Preps human
misery, should create hostile feclings in persons who professed to
have similar objectsin view. 1 have had some op} sosition, much
labour, and more anxiety during the course of these researches ;
but had the opposition, the labour, and the anxiety been a thou-
sand times as great, the events of this day w ote have been more
than a compensation.”—(Great plaudits). Sir Flumphry, im
drinking the health of the company, offered as a sentiment—
« Prosperity to the Coal Trade,” The
Triumph of Science, 311
The Chairman proposed the health of the Duke of Northum-
berland, the Lord Lieutenant of the county.
The Manager of his Grace’s coal concerns returned thanks, and
read an extract of a letter from the Duke, expressing his admi-
ration of the object of the meeting, and his conviction of the
great benefit that had resulted to science, and humanity in ge-
neral, and the coal trade in particular, from Sir H. Dayy’s dis-
coveries.
Mr. Lambton gave the health of the Mayor of Newcastle, who
returned thanks, and gave the health of the Chairman, which was
drank with three times three, and great plaudits.
Mr. Lambton, after returning thanks, again alluding to the
object of the meeting, stated his own desire upon all occasions
to promote, to his best endeavours, the interest of the coal-trade.
The health of the Bishop ef Durham was drank. The Rev.
Mr. Collinson, his representative on this occason, said that no-
thing but the age and infirmity of, the venerable Bishop pre-
vented him from being present; that no one was more deeply in-
terested in the cbject of their meeting. Mr. Collinson said, that
whatever gratification Sir H. Davy received from the enthusiasm
with which his invention was received by men so well able to ap-
preciate it, yet that it must be infinitely more gratifying to him
to know, that men now living, and their sonibtest posterity,
would be indebted to him for their safety; and that he was an
instrument in the hands of Providence, not only for protecting
human life, but for preserving human happiness.
Mr. Lambton g gave ‘¢ Mr. Buddle, and the Viewers of New-
castle,”’ stating, that the coal-owners owed much to the cour-
age and sagacity with which they investigated danger, and the
skill which they used in avoiding it; and paid many Just com-
pliments to their science, as w ell as to their humanity.
Mr. Buddle, in returning thanks, said, that Sir Humphry
Davy’s lamp*offered them resources in the art of mining which
they had never hoped for, enabled them to work coals which
could never even have been explored, and above al), took from
their minds a heavy weight of responsibility.
Sir Humphry Davy gave the health of the Rev, Dr. Gray, a
gentleman, he said, by whose enlightened philanthropy his at~
tention had been first turned to the subject.—Dr. Gray returned
thanks.
The following toasts were given by the Chairman: .
“« The Union of Science with Humanity.” The Trade of
Tyne and Wear,”—** The Members of Neweastle,”—‘* The
Rev. John Hodgson.”
Sir H. Davy said he had. spoken of the general benefits re-
sulting from science ; he was sure they would drink with sane’ e
U4 the
312 Steam Engines.—Voltaic Action,
the health of a most venerable and distinguished friend to
science—Sir Joseph Banks, the President of the Royal Society,
who in vouth had endeavoured to extend the limits of human
knowledge, amongst difficulties and dangers; who, in his ad-
vanced age, was the patron of every useful object ; and who,
through his whole life, had devoted his fortune and his time to
the purposes of science.
Mr. Robinson gave “ The Members for the County of Dur-
ham.”—Mr. Lambton returned thanks.
At ten o’clock Mr. Lambton and Sir H. Davy took their leave
amidst the enthusiastic applauses of the meeting, when Mr. Wm.
Lamb took the chair, and harmony and conviviality were kept
up till a late hour. Never was there a more agreeable meeting,
and as the object of it was one of convivial benevolence, so the
effect of it was universal hilarity.
~ STEAM ENGINES {N CORNWALL.
From the Monthly Report for September, it appears that du-
ring that month the following was the work performed by the
engines reported, with each bushel of coals.
Water lifted 1 foot high| Load per square
with each bushel. inch in cylinder.
23 common engines averaged 23,099,400 various.
Woolf’s at Wheal Vor .- 38,894,222 15°5 lib.
Ditto Wh. Abraham* .. 40,310,194 16°S
Ditto CED, sac -- 26,138,822 4°53
Ditto Wh. Unityt sel... 29075019 13-1
Dalcouth engine .. »- 48,031,945 11+2
Wheal Abraham ditto .- 9895128,397 10°3
United Mines ditto.. -- . 30,716,538 }- 18-1
Wheal Chance ditto e+ 38,832,427 15-1
VOLTAIC ACTION, SAFETY-FURNACE, ETC.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sirk,—~Having ascertained the influence of atmospheric air in
increasing the intensity of the Voltaic action, J was next desirous,
in following up the views of M. Dessaignes, to ascertain the ef-
fect of an exalted temperature. For this purpose the plates
were heated highly in a sand-bath and plunged into the acid
medium in the porcelain cells. By this means I ignited with
the three porcelain troughs adverted to, still preserving the same
diluted acid, eleven inches and a half of platinum wire. The
experiments with charcoal and metallic lamine were propor-
tionally brilliant. I next raised the temperature of the acid so-
lution up to 130° F. and obtained results nearly as_ striking.
* Has had considerable lets this month to repair boilers.
+ Working part of this month without the aid of the smalt cylinder. W
? e
Safety- Furnace, €c. 3138
We have thus provided another mean for obtaining an increased
action.
In referring to the apparatus [ have proposed for drawing off
and consuming the explosive hydrocarbenate of the mine, I
should have mentioned, that when one, two or more pipes are
used, the orifices of the others must be shut by means of proper
appendages. By allowing the urn to rest in water, it will always
be kept cool ;—or a current of water being permitted to enter
from below, through a small aperture ; we should have, besides
the safety afforded by the wire-gauze, that of an atmosphere of
steam ;—and if the position of Sir H. Davy be founded in truth,
that flame is an exhibition of temperature above a white heat,
and that the wire-gauze serves merely to cool down the flame below
that increment which is the grade of incipient flame,—a fillet
of wire-gauze iv the interior of the urn, thus, Mee ee
would present a number of cooling surfaces, Aa
by incepting the included flame, and such a ‘
convolute, or spiral partition of wire-gauze,
would yield a security as ample and as abso- OY?
lute as the safety-lamp*. ak ack
I exposed to the action of the compound gases i in the oxy-
hydrogen blowpipe, a fragment of a meteoric stone which fell at
Pulrose (one mile from Douglas, Isle of Man), about twenty
years ago, during a thunder-storm. It tore up the ground with
considerable violence, killing a mare and foal at the same time.
This meteorolite appears somewhat like a dark pumice-stone,—
of low specific gravity,—and containing a few small white specks
resembling deucite when exposed to high increments of tempera-
ture.
It exhibited before the blow-pipe: first, an intense most vivid
light,—then entered into fusion, and passed into a Llack glass.
I also introduced before the ignited gaseous mixture a piece of
what has been Jong known here under the name of polishing
powder. This portion of it which [ found in situ resembled
asbestos, having a ligniform structure, but crumbling into a soft
powder between the ‘fingers. 1 found it in contact with decom-
posing granite and quartz interspersed with Tieedle schorl; in-
deed, I have specimens which | found in the same place, com-
posed of masses of needle and compact schorl exhibiting the
various transitions into this substance.
Before the blow-pipe it was characterized by a vivid light like
*T apprehend that the convolute would present but one cooling surface,
namely the exterior ; the inner convolutions would be in the situation of a
piece of wire-gauze within a safety-lamp.—Ep:.
magnesia
314 - Chemistry.
magnesia when introduced before the condensed ignited gas, en
tered into rapid fusion, and formed a beautiful black bead.
1 am, sir, your obedient humble servant,
Douglas, Is!e of Man, Sept. 17, 1817, J. Muar:
The following errata appear in my late paper: Pagel 45, line 8,
read “ while” fustead of until, Page 144, read ** of ihe corrosive
salt.” Page 146, read Mr. Porrett j Pes J.M.
PROCESS FOR PREPARING ACETATE OF POTASH :—COLOURING
MATTER OF DRAGONS BLOOD EXTRACTED BY QUICKLIME.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Srr,—I beg leave to offer to the consideration of your che-
mical readers a more convenient process for preparing acetate
of potassa than that which is at present followed, in the way
now practised; viz. that of saturating subcarbonate of potassa
with distilled vinegar. It almost invariably happens that the so-
lution is of a brown colour, probably arising in part from the pre-
sence of some extractive matter, and partly from the partial com-
bustion of the acid during the ebullition. In order to remove this
impurity the solution is evaporated to dryness, and the residaum
is melted by a gentle heat and left to crystallize. If the solution
of the acetate be made in the way which I shall proceed to di-
rect, it is colourless, and cousequently does not require the eya-
poration to dryness ‘and subsequent fusion.
Let 120 parts of subcarbonate of potassa and 300 parts of
superacetate of lead be separately dissolved in as little water as
possible; the solutions are to be mixed together, the carbonate
of lead will be precipitated, and the acetate of potassa will re-
main in solution, which may be evaporated until it becomes
somewhat thick, and then set aside to crystallize.
Iam unacquainted with the quantity of acetate yielded by the
above proportions ; as while the solution was evaporating, an
accident happened to my apparatus.
I obtained from the 300 grains of superacetate only 160 grains
of carbonate of lead; from which circumstance I ani induced to
question the accuracy of Thenard’s statement of the proportions
of the component parts of the former salt; viz. oxide of lead 58;
acetic acid 26; water 16: for, supposing his account to be
correct, I did not obtain the full proportion of oxide, without
reckoning the carbonic acid; the whole of which, as no efferves-
cence occurred on mixing the solutions, must have entered into
combination. I am, sir, yours respectfully,
July 27, 1817. LITHOPHILUS.
P.S. [have recently found that the colouring matter of the
resin vulgarly denominated dragons blood, may be extracted by
quicklime, almost if not quite as well as by caustic alkali,
Death by Lightning.— Queries. 315
DEATH BY LIGHTNING.—QUERIES.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir,—During a visit to a friend in Herefordshire, I was de-
sired to examine the body of a man whose life had been suddenly
destroyed by lightning at Colwall near Ledbury. The wife of
the deceased obstinately refusing permission to open the body,
my examination was confined to the effeets of the electric fluid
on the external surface. On viewing the head, I found the hair
and the beard of the left side singed, and the cen of the ear,
eheek, and upper part of the neck ‘perfectly black, but entire.
Between the shoulders there was another black spot of the size
of a crown, exactly over the spine, and on the outside of the
thigh of the right side just above the kuee, there was another
black spot which I could scarcely cover with my hand. The
parts of the shirt and flannel lining of the breeches and jacket
which covered the injured skin were charred, but neither the ex~
terior parts of the small-clothes (which were made of corduroy)
nor of the jacket were burnt, the electric fluid having only oeca-
sioned a laceration resembling an incision made by a sharp in-
strument. It appears that the electric matter entered the left
side of the head, passed through the chest and abdomen in an
oblique direction, and escaped just above the knee on the oppo-
site side of the body. Whether the fluid entered or escaped at
the spot on the back, I am at a loss to say; but from the ex-
ternal part of the jacket not being burnt, I suspect a quantity
escaped there. The spots were perfectly. black, and exhibited
the same appearance as is produced by the caustic alkali after
remaining several hours on the skin; and from its flabby state,
the mischief was no doubt deep. Whether the fluid produced
the same effect on the internal parts through which the fluid
passed as it did on the skin, is a question which I shall be obliged
to you, or some of your readers who have ascertained the fact in
a similar case, to answer. The man at the time the accident
happened was under an oak-tree, aud when the lightning struck
him he sprung forward and fell on his face; soon after which
there was a second flash, and this might have produced the spot
between the shoulders ; but if so, where did it escape?
About twenty years ago I had an op portunity to examine a
man who was struck dead by lightning in a fied near Hereford,
‘with an umbrella over his head. On that man the electric fluid
uced no evident effect either externally or internally, The
in had a sulphurous smeil.
Queries. Did the passing of the fluid through the umbrella
prevent its burning the body? As no apparent injury was done
to the body, how are we to account for its cffects in eahrov ing
life ?
316 New Scale for the Mountain Barometer —Optics.
life? Did it terminate life by destroying the electrical powers
of the brain? I hope some of your readers will, through the
medium of your valuable work, favour me with some remarks on
these cases, aid replies to my queries. Iam, sir, your consfant
Reader, } R. R.
Piceadilly, Oct. 17, 1817.
NEW SCALE FOR THE MOUNTAIN BAROMETER.
Professor Bertoneelli of Verona has contrived an ingenious
method of adapting a graduated measure to the common scale
of the barometer, to indicate the height of mountains without the
necessity of calculating for the different degrees of temperature,
&c. To the common scale he adapts a corresponding one, di-
viding the inches into 100, placing his zero at mean pressure,
and ascending both ways in numeration from that point. This
scale is surmounted by a brass revolving cylinder on which are
graved four different series of lines; one perpendicular divided
like the preceding; another of ten diverging lines which ascend
the whole length of the cylinder, and the rationale of which the
Professor has not stated ;—these lines are again partially inter~
sected by two series of four lines diverging at right angles from
the point of zero, and designed to indicate the correction for
difference of temperature. The whole cylinder revolves by means
of a screw, and acts in conjunction with the counter scale of the
barometer ; it is accompanied by a vernier, which is commanded
by two or three screws to the point of correction; while this
vernier is also to act in correspondence with a common nonius
placed on the inch scale opposed to the surface of the mercury,
This complex machine Professor Bertoncelli calls an Ipsographie
seale, which nevertheless has still to be read off and calculated
by the aid of logarithms. If he could find a metal which would
not contract with cold, then his series of screws and tangent lines
might be useful; and if logarithms were more familiar than com-
mon addition or subtraction, this instrument might prove of
much general utility.
OPTICS.
A very interesting case has just oceurred, of a person born |
blind being restored to sight by the means of a surgical opera- —
tion:— A native of Burdwan, of the age of eighteen, was lately
sent by his family to Dr.Luxmore, of whose success in the removal
of the cataract they had heard by public report. The operation
was performed on the 26th, and in six days he began to see and -
distinguish objects. After the celebrated case of Dr. Chesel-
den’s patient, whose sensations have been so minutely and phi-—
losophically laid before the public, it can hardly be expected that
any discovery regarding the origin of our ideas of figure, distance,
er quantity, could be extracted from the observation of an ig-
norant
Hybernation of Swallows.— Patents. 317 -
norant country boy, who, unaccustomed to think abstractedly, is
little able to describe the gradual improvement of his intellect,
under this sudden and astonishing introduction to the visible
world. He confirmed, however, with readiness the conclusion,
so obvious from the feelings of Dr. Cheselden’s patient, that
our common judgement of figure, quaritity, and distance, is not
an inherent faculty in the mind, but a practical result, from the
ever-repeated experiment of comparing the perspective with the
actual figure, bulk, or distance. For a cricket-ball was put in
one hand, and a cube of soap in the other, and he was desired to
describe their shape; he was unable to do it by his newly ac-
quired and inexperienced vision, and was obliged to have con-
stant recourse to the more practised sense of feeling. When
any object is presented to him, although he can without hesita-
tion declare its colour, he is wholly unable to decide on its qua-
lity, until he is allowed to handle it.—Benzal Pauper,
=
HYBERNATION OF SWALLOWS.
Extract of a Letter from Joseph Wood, esg. to a Gentleman in
Washington.
“ Marietta, June 30.
‘| came to this country in the autumn of 1785, and resided
atBelleville about three miles below this place,on theVirginia side,
till 1791. During my residence there, I observed one evening
a little after sunset, a vast number of swallows collected together
high in the air, and hovering over a particular spot; this was
in autumn, when the weather began to grow cool. Having been
informed by some of my school-mates, when a boy, that they
had seen swallows dive into a mill-pond, and disappear, 1 was
determined to watch these, and in about ten or fifteen minutes,
as darkness approached, they lowered their flight, and concen-
trated in a smaller circle, and at length, to my surprise, poured
into a very large hollow sycamore-tree, about seventy feet above
the ground. I observed that they came out for several succes-
sive days, and returned in the evening in the same manner. In
the following year, some of the settlers cut down the tree; the
hollow was about six feet in diameter, and was filled six inches
deep with bones and feathers, and other remains of dead birds 5
' —such, probably, as were too old and feeble to fly out in the
spring. They must have occupied the tree for many years. I
have since seen two other trees that have fallen, with similar ap-
pearances,” —_———
LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS.
To Edmund Richard Ball, of Albury Mills, in the parish of
Albury, Surry, for his new method of manufacturing paper of
superior
318 _ Patents.—Astronomy.
superior strength and durability for bills, or notes, or other uses
requiring strength.—9th August 1817.—2 months to enroll.
To Edward Biggs, of Birmingham, for his improvements in
the methods of making or manufacturing pans and stails of va~
rious kinds. —12th August. —2 months.
To James Bounsall, of Crown-street, Old-street Road, Shore=
ditch, Middlesex, for certain improvements in the machinery
used for tarring, reeling, and twisting of yarn, and forming the
lissims or strands of cables and other cordage, and manufacturs
ing rope of every size.—-i2th August.—6 months.
To William Geldart and John Servant, both of Leeds, York-
shire, for certain improvements in mangles.—1 2thAugust—2 mo.
To Jephtha Avery Wilkinson, late of New-York in the United
States of America, but now of Covent Garden, Middlesex, for
certain improvements in the application of machinery for the
purpose of manufacturing of weavers’ reeds by water or on
power.—23d August.—6 months.
To George Medhurst, of Denmark-street, St. Giles, Ye
sex, engineer, for an arrangement of implements to form certain
apparatus which he denormindtes the hydraulic balance, applica-
ble to mechanical and hydraulic purposes. rane August.—6
months. —_—_—.
To Mr. Tilloch.
Sir,—I take the opportunity of inquiring, through the means
of your widely-extended Magazine, whether any of your astro-
nomical correspondents observed the remarkable conjunction of
Venus with Regulus on the 29th of September last. I find by
M. Bode’s Ephemeris, that the two stars would, at Berlin, ap-
pear within twelve seconds of each other: but no notice is taken
of this singular phenomenon either in the Nautical Almanaek,
or in the Connaissance des Tems.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
October 27, 1817. -ASTRONOMICUS.
ore
ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA, NOVEMBER 1817.
D. H. M. D.H. M.
2.23.53 D»R 12.8.6 Dr?
4.21.47 ) 3ym 14.21.41 ) eV
6.0.16 ) y ng 20.820 )o x
6.11. 4.389 22. 0. O ) in apogee
7:16..5 ) og 22, 2.54 © enters #
FAQ FZ DAN 23 OuOny ALs
Si08.085 3) 2 Baio 25.2.35 ) 6
Qg.11.43 ) om 25. 5.33 ) 125 ¥
9g. 0: O P in perigee D7 op G2 Deus
10.16. 5 ) 9 Ophiuchi 28.027 ) 2G
12.0.20 D> f 30. 649 D4 Q
12,4,.8 jot? METEORO=
Meteorology. 519
METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL KEPT AT BOSTON,
LINCOLNSHIRE,
—=—<
[The time of observation, unless otherwise stated, is at 1 P.M.]
‘geo
the
Moon
——
f
Thermo-} Baro- |State of the Weather and Modification
61°5
65°
67°5
meter.
meter. of the Clouds.
30°20 |Rain
30°20 |Cloudy
30°15 |Fair
29°81 |Rain
30° |Fair—rain A.M.
30°15 \Ditto
30°14 |Ditto
30°03 |Cloudy
30°07 |Fair
30°06 |Ditto
29:60 |Ditto—rain A.M.
29°27 |Fair—gale from the SW.
29°44 |Cloudy—ditto
29'80 |Ditto—wind N. by E.—sharp frost
at night
30°09 |Fine ditto ditto
30°14 |Ditto ditto ditto
29 go |Ditto ditto ditto
30°2) |Ditto ditto ditto
30°22 |Ditto ditto ditto
30°39 | Ditto
30°47
30°45
Ditto—heavy rain A.M.
Very fine
30°36 |Ditto
30°29 |Fine
30°17
30°07
Ditto
Cloudy
30°16 |Pair—cold rain A.M.
30°20. |Showery
30:40 |\Very fine—rain P.M.
30°32 |Showery
METEORO-
Days of
Mouth.
Meteorology.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,
By Mr. Cary, oF THE STRAND,
For October 1817.
Vhermometer. eves :
ae > Qas
brea Wace S .| Height of |& &
=e S 5, the Barom. a Weather.
oS A OF” Inches. = 2 Eb
‘ = Aaa
55 | 56 | 48 } 29.50 o {Rain
48 | 56 | 50 ‘Ol 92 «‘|Fair
44} 55 | 49 89 36 {Fair
49 | 55 | 50 °87 30 «Fair
47 | 54 | 45 “75 3. {Fair .
39 | 50 | 40 } 30°01 26 _\Fair
35 | 50 | 40 "14 27 | |Fair
44155 | 46 21 90 =| Fair
44 | 56 | 44 *23 36 Fair
42 | 54 | 43 *14 36 [Fair
48 | 57 | 44 "10 |: 40 .|Fain
45 | 50 | 47 “02 32 =«(|Fair
47 | 55 | 47 | 29°88 39 ‘(|Fair
44 | 56 | 50 "89 36 |Fair
45 | 50\| 49 "94 27_~=S«| Fair
44 | 50 | 38 | 30°05 26 |Showery
38 | 48 | 492 96 25 |Showery
44 | 50 | 42 “10 24 |Cloudy
42 | 47 | 42 | 29°90 (0) Showery
43 |.46 | 40 *96 o [Rain
42 | 47-| 42 °99 (0) Showery
43 | 46 | 41 78 oO |Rain
44 | 47 | 45 82 17. |Cloudy
45 | 48 | 45 90 0 |Rain
46 | 48 | 46 “80 9 \Cloudy
45.|.50 | 42 "82 10 |Cloudy
45 | 48 | 45 °90 6 |Showery
44 | 46 | 45 80 o {Rain
42°, 50 | 45 “oa 12 |Cloudy
47 | 52} 44 ay] 22 =««\Fair
N.B,. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o’¢lock.
—
SOaph BBE F
LII. On the Question “ Whether Music is necessary to the
Orator,--to what Extent,and how most readily attainable?”
By Henry Upineron, Esq.
To My. Tilloch.
Blair’s Hill, Cork, Sept. 25, 1817.
Sir, — Hawise been lately requested by a particular friend,
to direct my attention towards the investigation of a certain sub-
ject which he considered both interesting and instructive, | com-
plied with his wishes; and having proceeded a certain length,
I now transmit you a copy, intending at a future period to com-
plete the inquiry.
The purport of this investigation was—‘‘ Whether music is
necessary to the orator—-to what extent, and how most readily
attainable ?”
As there appeared to me, at my first setting out, some proba-
ble connexion between the intervals of speech, and the ancient
division ef the musical scale, I was determined, if possible, to
analyse the tetrachord. Hence arose not only the question of
minute division, but of concords, even to the perfection or im-
perfection of our present harmonical basis :—and with this part
of the subject I thought it more desirable to begin.
Lxperimeni 1. 1 prepared a common deal sounding-board
about four feet in length, with an ordinary bridge, and sufficient
steel wires for the subdivision of one single fourth into quarter
tones, CF being the extremes.
Result. After getting the best-ear’d musicians around me, to
tune, retune, alter, realter, by ear as well as by all the ancient data
1 could trace,—the only effect produced, in ¢heir estimation,
whenever a quarter tone was struck, was that which would ne-
cessarily be produced by an instrument out of tune.
What can we infer from hence? That modern ears are no
more prepared for the reception of the real diesis or quarter
tone, than the ears of our earliest ancestors would have been for
that of our present semi-tonical division. Here a very important
question presents itself: How happens it, that at this very day
(if we may believe Dr, Burney) the Arabian scale is more mi-
nutely divided than ours; their octave containing twenty-four
quarter tones, for all of which there are particular denomina-
tions? Must it not have arisen from excessive cultivation, the
ear having been previously satiated with the semi-tone? Dr. B.
is right perhaps in asserting that such division is incompatible
with modern harmony. But what of this? Does it prove the
superiority of modern European ears, or the superiority of our
Vol, 50, No,235. Nov. 1817. X system?
322 On the Question “ Whether Music is necessary to the
system? It is idle to speak of Natwre—we are all the children
of Art. But in regard to our senses, is there any rational ground
for asserting that our ears are more infallible than our eyes?
Early impressions will produce within us certain ideas of beauty
which no subsequent comparison can efface : Hence the totter-
ing foot and sugar-loaf head are held in greater estimation by
the Chinese, than those of the most perfect statue ever said to
have been formed by the chisel of Praxiteles.. We may next
proceed to
Experiment 2. being one certain, and perhaps the only me-
thod of tuning the soni stabiles or immoveable tones of the
disdiapason, agreeably (as 1 conceive) to the laws of the ancient
system; that is, with three conjunct, and one disjunct, tetra-
chords; for which purpose I employed a common piano-forte.
Let the disdiapason or double octave be represented by the
following letters, taking C as the fundamental :
CCx DDx EFFxGGx AAwB cex ddx e ffx ggx aaxb ©
This tuning was effected by
Ist. Tune D toany desired pitch means of a monochord,
Qdly. -— G a perfect 4th from D | the comparative lengths
3dly. —— c a perfect 4th from G of sounding wire being
4thly.-— C a perfect octavefromc }, | Rica ; Inches.
Sthly.— f aperfect 4th from oe ga ge at 1000
6thly. ——(@) a perfect octave frome | SUPPOE ss +s
7thly.-— g a perfect 4th) 6 on o eee of 00D a 750
as 4 >
eeu) J ‘|For its octave, 4 of 500
1000. My
The ultimate soni stabiles will therefore exhibit themselves in
the following order : every cther note being subject to the pro-
posed adjustment of the performer,
cD G c fg ©
Now this arrangement, which insists upon no more than two
intermediate notes in either octave, will be found upon trial to
differ so very little, if at all, from that mode of tuning most
agreeable to a cultivated ear, that we must consider ‘it (at least.
for simple melody) as a mere well-regulated outline.
I could here wish to examine, why the fourth was considered
by the ancients as the most perfect conchord; so perfect indeed
as to constitute the main regulator of the scale ;—but the docu-
ments of antiquity are wanting. We must therefore resort to a
modern experiment, which I find recorded in one of our Cyclo-
pedias (I believe Rees’s), which exhibits the question ina sin-
gularly striking manner. aA
Not
——
Orator,—to what Extent,and how most readiiy attainabie” 323
Not content with the assertion of the writer, who made the
experiment with a wire several yards in length, I constructed a
simple monochord (that of which I have just spoken), and found
the results to correspond. As this very simple instrument is’not
only amusing, but on many occasions instructive, I shall de-’
scribe it,
Monochord.
Take an even strip of deal, free from knots, about three feet
long, five inches broad, and three-quarters thick. Plane it fair,
and glue upon each end a piece of hard wood about an inch and
ahalfin height. Stretch a steel wire horizontally over these by
means of two upright iron pegs suited to a common tuning-ham-
mer. Lastly, procure a perpendicular bridge of hard wood,
about an inch long, whose base may be three-quarters, and whose
summit about one-quarter inch in breadth: let it move freely to
and fro beneath the wire, (merely in contact and no more, lest
the pitch should be altered,) and press it (the wire) down upon
the aforesaid bridge, at the destined mark, with your nail, or,
which is better, with a small oblong square piece of hard timber.
The monochord is thus complete; and by way of a sounding=
board, you have only to place it on a table, or on the leaf of a
piano-forte. :
A rough side-view may explain it better.
AA, Blocks which serve for feet.
B B, Permanent bridges, each one inch sia a half high.
Cc C, Blocks in which the pegs are inserted,
D, Moveable bridge.
Let me now describe the experiment which proves the grada~
tion of our concords.
Experiment 3. Take a strip of fine soft paper (news paper
will answer) about one inch and a half long and half an inch -
broad, bent longitudinally in a triangular form, like a sadd/e.
With one extremity of this saddle {its apex being upward) the
string while sounding is to be gently pressed at given points, and
tones different. from the original will be strongly perceptible.
$Y Thus,
324 On the Question “ Whether Music is necessarg to the
Thus,
Sounds which would be pro- Harmonic sounds
Points of duced at such points were resulting from
contact. the bridge so situate, aud the veutle pressure
wire struck in the usual way. by the sott paper.
Centres: os, 6%; /Oetave, ..9. Octave.
~ point, ...... Fourth. .. Double Octave.
$MOs, 840) oe, EHR: Ar Octave of the Fifth.
$ do. .. .. Minor 6th.. Triple Octave.
mid Double Octave of the
Ha on ee enon Od: 3c { Major 3d.
Fi Oa ry gint tess if Minor: Bdis4e.« Double Octave of the 5th.
Double Octave of the
i Major 3d,
[The moveable bridge is not used in this experiment.]
Of Discords.
The 2ds and 7ths are independent characters, mutually con-
nected with each other, and bearing no relation whatever to any
of the foregoing concords, -
Such is the undeniable statement of harmonic relatious, by
which you will readily perceive the remoteness of our 3ds, and
their consequent rejection by the Greeks, who acknowledged only
two concords, (the octave being considered as a repetition, or
rather as an antiphonious sound,) in contradistinetion to the uni-
son, which was termed homophonious.
These two ancient concords were,
The 4th, regarded perfect.
The 5th, regarded imperfect.
Were you to take the trouble of reading Burney’s History of
Music, you would smile at his unwillingness to acknowledge the
4th as a concord at all. His reason is obvious, the comparative
perfection or imperfection of our harmonic system being so de-.
pendent upon this important fact.
That harmony, according to the modern.sense, was rejected
by the Greeks, requires but little argument. In every system
adopted by that extraordinary people, they sought perfection,
nor could they by any means consent to the erection of a super-
structure upon ever so slightly defective a basis. With them no
other combination of tones was held admissible, than that of the
unison and octave ; and for these they might well have pleaded
the sympathy of Nature herself. Aristides Quintilianus, an an-
cient Greek writer, has related the case, and the proof is readily |
attainable with our monochord.
Experiment 4, Tune to perfection, on the piano-forte, every
note within a given octave.
Tune the monochord in perfect unison with the upper a ee
tha
$ do. as ee IMRJOF GLH cs
Orator,—to what Extent,and how most readily attainable 2” 325
thet octave, suppose c. Place it on the piano, and balance
across the wire a small slip of fine tissue paper, sufficiently bent
to sustain itself from falling.
Strike the fundamental C of the piano pretty strongly, and
the wire of the monochord will vibrate a little; just so as to
agitate the paper.
Strike the upper c, that is the unison of the monochord, in a
similar way, and the paper will be strongly agitated.
Strike every other individual note between C and c, and no
such effect shal! be produced.
So far for sympathy, which fully authorized the adoption of
the unison and octave; and so far may the ancient system be
defended. But why should that system have been confined to
the narrow limits of the disdiapason or double octave ?
Perhaps this question may be solved by another. May not the
Greeks, whose constant maxim was that of unity, have consi-
dered the musical string itself as the natural boundary of the mu-
sical system, every sound, though apparently simple, being neither
more nor less than a compound of the numberless intervals
of the grand system, or whole string .. ..
and of the two smaller, or disdiapasons, into which <>
the string while vibrating is divided
every portion thereof being at the same moment in more or
less effective operation—wih, and, if I may use the expression,
at the same time without a central bridge?
This conjecture may not be deemed altogether irrational
when we reflect upon the ancient character,—thus maintaining
the unity of Nature in a!! the fullness of perfection.
But why did not the Greeks consent to the subdivision of
time, the only distinctions with them being the long and short, in
the ratio of one to two, similar to those “of our semibreve and
minim, or crotchet and guaver? 1 answer—The preservation of
their beautiful language, whose genius does not even admit our
ordinary larring. lad the frittering away of syllables been
once encouraged, and considered as a musical beauty, where
would the innovation have ceased? Ancient Poetry herself
would have lost her character, and ancient Oratory have been
degraded for ever.
In addition to the previous inquiries, that of the ancient modes
must not pass unnoticed. Little however can be said respecting
them, the necessary materials being irrecoverably lost. They
appear to me to have been somewhat analogous to what we now
term the different keys,—each of which keys, in consequence of
the manner of tuning the instrument, had its own fixed character,
which character would have been destroyed by transposition into
any other key, No general temperament, therefore, could have
X3 answered
526 * Whether Music is necessary to the Orator 2”
answered the design, the soni mobiles,.or moveable tones, re-
quiring a new manner of tuning upon every change of mode.
In these changes, the 3ds, no doubt, must have had their in-
fluence, flattening the minors adding considerably to the plain-
tive, and sharpening the majors to the maddening effect of the
composition, 7
Such niceties could hardly have been discriminated, much less
executed, during the grosser ages; in which, according to Bur-
ney, the singing of a simple semitone in tune was almost insur-
mountable. Hence, and hence alone followed what we moderns
have been pleased to term ‘the reformation of the scale.”
* Guido arose,” say a number of musicians who never took the
trouble of exploring antiquity: But what did this Guy Aretin
achieve? Little more than the improvement of dines (for even
these were partially adopted before his day), and the total aban-
donment of tetrachords with all their delicate distinctions; sub-
stituting in their place, not the system of octaves, but the less
comprehensive one of hexachords or 6ths.
As to harmony, or rather note against note,,—for he had no
idea of more extensive combination*—the accompanying tones
of the 4th, 5th, and Sth were employed a long time before him:
the Monk Hubald, who flourished in the tenth century (nearly
one hundred years before Guido), having left a sort of treatise on
Music, which shows that not only the practice of limited coun-
terpoint prevailed at that period, but also that in addition to
the 4th, 5th, and Sth, both 2ds and 3ds were occasionally ad-
mitted.
Dr. Burney has given us some -particular accounts of Guido.
Among other singularities, he forbade the use of the 5¢/ in har-
mony, although he frequently employed the 2d and 4th, as like-
wise the miajor and minor 3ds, which latter (the 3ds) had for
some time been gaining ground.
These, with the cultivation of lines and the abandonment of
the tetrachords, as I have already mentioned,—together with the
extension of the disdiapasou to two octaves and a sixth, assign-
Ing, as some suppose, the name of G, or Gamma, to the lowest
note, from whence the term: Gamut,—are the most notable mat-
ters recorded of this applauded monk.
* With respect to our é2me-table: even in the day of John de
Muris, who lived in the fourteenth century, it contained but four
or five characters, and was therefore very limited compared with
that table which after-ages contributed to extend and improve.
Nor can any music be found of the preceding centuries, con-
sisting of more than two parts; and these in the strictest coun-
terpoint of note against note. ise
Thus every thing was progressive, nor have we any bay: to
affirm
Report of the Select Commitice on Steam-Boats. 327
affirm that any extraordinary genius arose to whom posterity has
been singularly indebted. Even larring itself was never. prac-
tised, at least in England, before the reign of our Charles the
First.
Let us now finish our examination of ancient music, by in-
quiring into the more immediate causes of its destruction, as
well as the ravages which almost obliterated its very traces.
‘After the conversion of the emperors, it would appear that all
the theatres and other public spectacles were discouraged ; and
that nothing but the insipid psalmody of the primitive Christians
could find its way into the churches and private dwellings. Thus
vanished by degrees the Greek and Roman secular music; no
private person being capable of executing the refined and diffi-
cult music of the theatre. Add to this, the ultimate overthrow
of both the Eastern and Western empires; and, not to speak of
Gothic ravages, the plundering and burning* of Rome in 1527
by the army of Charles V., by which the records of the pontifical
chapel, with innumerable works of every description, were de-
stroyed;—and we shall by no means wonder at the paucity of
musical documents which lave reached our time.
_. [To be continued. ]
LIII. Report of the Select Committee appointed to consider of
the Means of preventing the Mischief of Explosion from hap-
pening on board Steam-Boats, to the Danger or Destruciion
of His Majesty’s Subjects on board such Boats.
[Concluded from p. 256. |
Mr. Jostas Jessop’s Evidence.
Srare to the Committee what you are, and where you reside ?
—I am a civil engineer, residing in the Adelphi, London.
.Are you acquainted with steam-boats ?—-I know the principle
of them; I have been on board of them, and seen them.
Our object being to inquire into the method of ensuring a
greater safety to the passengers on board those steamn-boats,
have you any thing to communicate to the Committee respect-
ing that object ?—If that were the only object, there can be no
doubt that one of low pressure must be more secure than one of
high pressure; for although they may be both easily made secure
originally, yet from the natural wear and tear, both are liable to
accidents. If an accident happen to one of a high pressure, Its
consequences certainly will be more dangerous than that of a
low pressure engine.
* See Burney, who bas quoted Andrea Adami,
X4 Is
328 Report of the Select Committee
Is it your opinion that a high pressure boiler may be con-
structed so as to make it perfectly secure ?—That is a theoretical
question to give an answer to; I should say yes, certainly; but
experience proves that both wear out.
What would be the construction, and what the precautions
you should recommend, in order to ensure that safety ?—That it
should be able to withstand the proof of two or three times the
pressure to which you are likely to put it, or rather the pres-
sure to which you should be limited ; if, for instance, you meant
to work it at fifty pounds pressure, and it stand the proof of one
hundred-and-fifty pounds, the presumption is, that it is se-
cure; but in the course of two or three years all boilers wear
out.
What are the precautions that you would recommend to pre-
vent a boiler being used at a greater power than what it was
adapted for?—-By having an additional safety-valve, to which
the person who works the engine should not have access.
Is there any other precaution that you would recommend ?—
I think that if it were made of malleable metal, such as iron and
copper, it would be an additional security.
What is the ground of your preference to malleable or wrought
metal ?—It does not burst by an explosion, as brittle metal does,
but tears ; it would probably rend at the joints.
You do not mean then to say, that it would be impossible that
a malleable boiler would burst, but that it is improbable that
it would ?—It would burst, but it would not fly in pieces; the
rent would create a natural safety-valve.
Are you acquainted with the fact, that high pressure steam
and water heated so as to raise that steam, do not scald in the
same manner with water and steam at the heat of 212° ?—I am
not acquainted with the fact; but I have no difficulty in believ-
ing that the steam will not scald, although I should think that
the water will.
Do you think that if the safety-valves be properly adjusted to
the strength of the boiler, and so constructed as to work. with
perfect ease, and one of them put out of the reach of the engine-
man, there is any occasion for the additional aid of a mercurial
gauge ?—I should think not,
Have you any particular suggestions to make respecting the
construction of the boiler ?—The most convenient form of the
boiler is, that it should be adapted to the shape of the boat; and
I should think, that that being taken for granted, the safety
would depend upon the strength of the metal, and not upon the
form. It should be made of such strength, that any indenture
would not affect it. Although the form approaching to cylin-
drical is of course stronger than any other form, that which nearest
approaches
on Steam- Boats, 329
zpproaches to a sphere is the strongest, but a cylinder with semi-
circular ends is best; I mean hemispherical ends.
Is it not very possible to burst a low pressure engine, if the
engine-man is careless, or rash enough wholly to negleet his
steam-valve ?—Certainly ; I think that they are equally hable
to burst, only the one bursts with greater danger and risk than
the other.
Mr. ALexanpEr Nimmo’s Evidence.
What are you?—A civil engineer, and generally residing in
Dubiin.
Have vou any experience of the construction of steam-engines
for packets or passage vessels ?—I have seen the steam-vessels
in the Clyde, on the Thames, and vessels in Ireland, and those
vessels lately constructed for passage between Dublin and Holy-
head; and I have studied the subject with a good deal of care,
in a professional point of view. I have lately been employed by
the Dublin Steam Packet Company, to alter one of their vessels,
which was not found completely fitted for crossing the sea; {
have altered that vessel, and she is now plying in the Bristol
Channel preparatory to going to Ireland.
Have you, in consequence of your experience, any suggestions
to make as to the safe construction of the engine boiler con-
nected with such packets ?—A great part of the alterations that
I made upon this’ vessel, were intended to fit her for going
through the waves, and to alter her machinery; and another
portion of them was likewise directed to make her safe as to the
engine. You are aware that it is necessary for all engines of
that description to have safety-valves. The defects of the safety-
valve which I altered, were, that it is not now in the power of
the engine-man to keep it shut; it is in his power, or that of
any passenger, to open it, however, at all times so as to discover
whether it be in good order, by a small chain and a weight being
within the boiler: it is not in his power to add to it while in action:
and lastly, this vessel being intended to go to sea, and to work
_ as she has done, in very rough weather, the safety-valve is made
equally effectual in everv position of the ship, whether she heel,
pitch, or roll. The weight preserves the valve in motion, so as
to keep it from sticking, and it has always the same effort to
overcome. I will thus describe the nature of the valve: It is a
hemispherical cup with its convex surface downwards, resting
upon a collar, and to the bottom of the cup a weight is hung
which has previously been adjusted ; by this means the valve is
always steam-tight in every position, yet without danger of ad-
hering, and must be lifted by the steam when it exceeds a given
pressure; but the valve may also be lifted by a chain attached to
its
330 Report of the Select Committee
its upper side, which is inclosed within the iron case, and may he
drawn by the engine-man or any person on board, and which
does not allow him to keep it down or to confine it. We have
also found it necessary to prevent the accumulation of water
upon the top of this valve, arising from the condensed steam |
when escaping; this is done by a small waste-pipe descending
from the bottom of the pipe which conveys away the waste
steam; it is a waste-pipe for water. I have thought it advisa-
ble to make the steam-valves large, and that the weight which
is laid on being of itself large may admit easily of addition. I
have one or two more precautions to suggest for safety: In this
vessel there are two boilers communicating, and two safety-
valves; there is also a mercurial gauge provided with receivers,
so as to prevent the loss of the mercury in case of any sudden
collapsation or disengagement of steam, also a tube of glass at-
tached to the boiler, which exhibits the level of the water in the
boiler, and precludes any idea of danger in the minds of the
passengers ; these boilers are made of wrought iron, but I do
not consider them as being better on that account.
Do you think equal mischief is likely to arise from the explo-
sion of the wrought-iron boiler, as from the explosion of the
cast-iron boiler ?—That depends upon construction.
Put construction entirely out of the question; suppose the
form exactly similar, do you conceive that equal mischief is
likely to attend the explosion of the wrought-iron boiler, as the
cast-iron boiler ?—If the construction of the cast-iron boiler ad-
mits of its being made of wrought iron with equal strength, then
_the explosion of the cast iron one would be more dangerous, as
it will fly in pieces, whereas the other would probably tear; but
it is scarcely fair to stop at this hypothetical case, as we must
consider what can be done in practice. It is scarcely possible
to form cast iron every where equally strong, and if a part be
weaker than the rest, either on purpose or by accident, that will
not have the safety that would be obtained by a wrought-iron
boiler ; for instance, in cast-iron boilers it is common to have
holes, and if these be filled with some metal of different melting
temperature from cast-iron, more fusible for instance than that,
the juncture will part first, and it may be made to tear as a
wrought-iron boiler would do; and again, the wrought iron is
so much more liable to oxidation than cast iron, that although
found very efficient at first, its strength and tenacity may be very
speedily altered ; for these reasons cast-iron boilers have been
preferred where high pressure engines have been used’, and in
small tubes the tenacity of cast iron can be made greatly to ex-
ceed that which can be given to wrought iron in the same form.
[believe all large boilers have latterly been made of wrought
iron,
on Steam-Boats. 331
iron, as it is difficult to make them of cast iron. Although no
friend to high pressure engines in vessels, nor to cast-iron boilers,
on account of the danger of explosion, yet 1 conceive the chief
danger of that kind is likely to arise from working low pressure
boilers at a higher pressure than they were intended for ; and I
conceive that the principal improvement to be looked for-here-
after in steam vessels, is, to simplify the machinery, and put it
in less room, which the high pressure engine and cast-iron boiler
afford us the means of effecting, and the other does not. I will
state another thing as of consequence, viz. as to preventing a
vessel taking fire; it is advisable that the furnace and flues, if
not entirely above the deck, should at least be inclosed in a case
of water or other non-inflanmable matter, until they arrive above
the deck. This precaution I strongly recommend to be adopted,
Mr. Artuur Wootr’s Evidence.
What are you ?—I am a civil-engineer in the village of Pool,
in the parish of Illogan, in the county of Cornwall.
Are you conversant at all with steam packets ?>—No ; I never
had any thing to do with steam packets; they are out of my
line.
You have been long acquainted with steam-engines ?—Yes.
You invented the one that goes by your name ?—Yes ; I got
a patent for that steam-engine.
Have you any thing to communicate to this Committee, as to
the object upon which we are met, which is, the safety of steam-
engines and boilers on board steam-packets ?—With the boilers
I have heen in the habit of using for fourteen years, we never
have had any accident at all.
Of what are they constructed ?—Of cast iron.
Are your boilers in general made of wrought or cast iron ?—
Of cast iron wholly; I approve of the cast-iron boilers in pre-
ference to any mixture of metals.
Do you consider that the cast-iron boiler, upon the common
construction, is equally safe with a wrought-iron one ?>—Not
upon the common construction that I have seen; some I should
have doubted very much; I have seen some that are rather
dangerous; my patent consists of one composed of a number of
tubes.
What is the difference between your construction of the boiler
and the common construction, which, in your opinion, renders
yours so much safer than the other ?—It is always necessary in
boilers to. have a certain quantity of surface exposed to the ac-
tion of the fire, to contain heat and steam ; and if that be done
in one vessel, of course it must be of considerable size, greater
in
332 Report of the Select Committee
in ciameter than if composed of a number of tubes; and the
risk of explosion is in proportion to its quantity of surface.
Do you mean to say that, generally?—-With the same pres-
sure, certainly.
Would your boiler be as well adapted for a steam-boat, as
those generally made?—Yes, they are calculated for every pur-
pose ; they are generally adapted to high pressure steam; my
patent was taken out for a safe boiler for a high pressure en-
gine; indeed, in my own engines, I do not work the steam to
that height as is done in what is called the high pressure engine,
as the novelty of my engine is, that I work the steam twice over.
What precautions do you take to prevent accidents ?—I al-
ways make my boiler to stand from 14 to 20 times the pressure
that [ ever make use of,
What precaution do you make use of, to prevent a greater
pressure ?—-The safety-valve is what we depend upon ; I always
apply two safety-valves, as I have seen incidents where the valve
has accidentally stuck fast and would not act; and I have a safety~.
yalve, of a particular construction, that never can stick fast.
Do you use mercurial gauges ?—Never for a safety-valve; }
never found it necessary to have one, not for an escape,
Have you any other precautions besides those you have men=
tioned ?—Not any, but as to trying boilers to see that they are
strong enough; that is the point that I recommended in my
specification, that they should be proved by pressure every time
the boiler is emptied for cleansing ; then to fill up the boiler
with cold water quite full, and put an extra load of five or ten
times the power of steam; and then, by a forcing-pump, to
syringe water in till it lifts the valves; then there can be na
danger, there can be no explosion.
Suppose a cast-iron boiler, and a wrought-iron boiler of about
the same form and capacity, to be exploded by the force of the
internal steam, do you think that the mischief likely to be pro-
duced by each of those, would be equal? taking any form you
please, and exploding both, which would do the most mischief 3
—I do not think the wrought-iron boiler would separate into so
many pieces as the cast-iron boiler.
Then do you think that the explosion of the wrought-iron
boiler is attended with as much danger as the cast-iron boiler ?
—In every thing, excepting what depends upon the fragments
of the iron itself; I have no hesitation in saying, that cast-iron
boilers are safer than wrought-iron boilers.
Why ?—Because we can make them of a greater strength ;
you cannot make a wrought-iron boiler so strung as a cast one.
For high pressure you may have a boiler of cast iron ma
than,
on Steam- Boats. 333
than you can of wrought iron ?—TI can make it stronger and —
more to be depended on for great pressure ; but where great
pressure is not wanted, wrought iron can be made sufficiently
strong to depend on.
Supposing an accident happened, would not a wrought-iron
boiler be attended with as great mischief as a cast-iron one ?—
As great a number of accidents happen from the common boilers
or wrought-iron boilers, as from the cast ones.
Mr. ANpREW ViviaAN’s Evidence.
What is your profession ?—Miner and engineer.
Where do you reside ?—At Cambourne, in Cornwall.
Have you been long acquainted with the construction of steam-
engines ?—For thirty years and upwards.
You are then capable of giving an opinion as to those cireum-
stances by which danger is occasioned in the working them, and
the means of preventing it ?—I am. .
Be pleased to state them ?—The danger arises from making
the steam-vessel of insufficient strength for the steam; every
engineer ought to be well acquainted with the power of the steam,
and make the steam-vessels in proportion to the strength of the
steam required.
What precautions do you use to prevent explosion ?—Safety-
yalves ; not less than two on every boiler where a high pressure
of steam is required, aud that the boilers be made of sufficient
strength, and proved before used.
To what proof are those boilers subjected, or to what proof
ought they to be subjected >—By filling them with water, and
loading the safety-valves with, perhaps, ten times the weight
required for the engine, and then by injecting water into them,
so as to lift those valves with ten times the weight required.
When you say ten times, do you mean exactly ten times ?-—
Perhaps, ten or twelve times the weight it is intended to work.
You conceive that a boiler which has been so proved and fur-
nished with safety-valves, properly adjusted to its contents, to be
perfectly safe in working with steam, whether high or low pres-
gure ?—Yes, I do.
Is there any difficulty in so adjusting the apertures or valves ;
that is, in calculating of what size the yalves ought to be, to pro-
duce safety in a boiler of any given magnitude ?—No, no diffi-
eulty at all; itisa plain and well-known thing to all engineers,
or to every one who ought to pretend to be an engineer.
Is it usual to work a high pressure engine at all near to that
point to which the valves are thus adjusted ?—We load the en-
gines in the mines under my directions, to about forty pounds
en inch; aud the valves are then loaded to about forty-five, per-
haps. ut
334 Report of the Select Committee
But those valves are capable of being loaded up to the full ex-
tent to which the engine has been proved ?—Yes. AA 3
Is it not easy and common so to construct one of the safety-
valves, of which you have spoken, as that the engine-man shall.
not be able to load it beyond the pressure intended ?—One may
be locked up, and very easily kept from the engine-man.
When that one is so locked up and kept from the engine-man,
is it possible, according to the common calculation of events,
that the boiler should then explode if the valve works freely ?—
I do not conceive it possible that it could.
Is it not easy so to construct the valve as that its operation
shall not be hindered by any accident, such as adhering to the
sides or clogging from fouling, or any thing of that sort ?— Very
easily constructed, so as not to be liable to those accidents.
Do you then see any reason why, in any situation whatever,
the use of an engine should be limited to the low pressure, or
that which is usually called the condensing engine?—By no
means in the world. ;
Do you conceive that there is any difference in the liability to
explode, between the boilers constructed of wrought and of cast
iron ?—I should conceive that cast iron could be made much
stronger than wrought iron, with less difficulty; [ conceive it to
be a very difficult thing to make a wrought-iron boiler so strong
as we can have it cast: we have some of our boilers made two
inches thick ; and to make a wrought-iron boiler equally strong
as that, would be very difficult to be accomplished by workmen.
Supposing a east iron and a wrought iron to be of the same
form, and each of them to. be exploded by too great an internal
force being applied, which of the two do you think is likely to
produce the greatest mischief in the explosion ?>—Certainly, a
cast-iron boiler is likely to separate into more parts than a
wrought may be, and is likely to do more mischief. :
What accidents have happened to steam-boilers within your
own knowledge, working either with low or high pressure steam?
—I have known of no accident with high pressure steam and
cast-iron boilers; but I have known an accident happen work-
ing with Boulton and Watt’s low pressure engine, which was on
the 28th of November!811,in Wheal Abraham mine; a wfought-
iron boiler working with low pressure steam exploded there and
scalded six men, three of whom died in the course of a week
afterwards,
Were any persons at that time killed by the fragments of the
iron ?—No 3; it was entirely by the steam and the water.
Do you recollect any instance in which a wrought-iron boiler
exploded, so as that any persons were killed by the fragments ?
—I do not,
Do
on Steam-Boats. 335
Do you at all know, whether there is any difference between
the power of the steam or water to scald, when under high or
low pressure ?—The steam from low pressure sealds much worse
than the steam from high pressure ;. as to the water, I cannot
say. ! cannot conceive that water can issue to any great di-
stance from a high pressure boiler, it must svon be steam; it
must be converted into steam from its heat; water cannot go
beyond 212 degrees of heat, unless it is confined; beyond that
it must be steam. :
Have you ever known any person scalded by the steam or the
water issuing from a high pressure boiler ?—No.
Have you ever known any instances of persons being scalded
by the steam or water from a low pressure one, besides that
which you have mentioned ?—I have heard of a great number
of instances of this in different mines, but only that one came
directly under my own eye.
You have given the Committee to understand, that when
boilers made of wrought iron are exposed to steam of high. pres-
sure there is great difficulty in making them sufficiently strong,
for that the rivets are apt to draw, and the joints to become
loose ; do you not conceive it very possible for the boilers in such
cases to become useless by permitting the steam to escape, and
yet not to 
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